
Glass HD73H 

Book ■ L 4 "K S 



THE REPORT OF THE 
LAWRENCE SURVEY 



STUDIES IN RELATION TO LAWRENCE, MASSA- 

CHUSETTS, MADE IN 191 1, UNDER THE ADVICE 

OF FRANCIS H. MCLEAN BY ROBERT 

E. TODD AND FRANK B. SANBORN 

AT THE PROCUREMENT OF 

THE TRUSTEES OF THE 

WHITE FUND 



LAWRENCE, MASSACHUSETTS 

1912 



THE ANDOVER PRESS 

ANDOVER. MASSACHUSETTS 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction by Wilbur E. Rowell 17 

The Plan of the Survey by Francis H. McLean 20 

Topography of Lawrence by Arthur D. Marble 22 

Letter of the City Engineer 24 

PART I. HOUSING CONDITIONS 
By Robert E. Todd 

Housing Conditions 

The Early Houses 31 

Future as City of Tenements 33 

Fire Burden and Menace 35 

Coming Conflagration 39 

Houses Classified by Height 48 

Huddle Fever 49 

House Census 50 

Land Occupied by Houses 58 

Density of Population 60 

Light 61 

Sanitary Equipment 65 

Tenement Maintenance 67 

Building Regulations 81 

Center's Future 87 

Social Results of Bad Housing 108 

The Remedy in 

Housing Legislation, Dire Need of 115 



8 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Page 

Housing, Miscellany and Tables 127 

Persons in Apartments 127 

Air Shafts — Small Rooms 128 

Occupancy on Corner Lots 129 

Open Spaces on Lots 129 

American Woolen Houses 132 

House Census 139 

Materials and Location 139 

Apartments, Number of 140 



Building Inspectors' Record 141 

Rents 142 

Crowding in Apartments 143 

Boarding and Lodging Houses 143 

Sources of Information 144 

PART II. PUBLIC HEALTH 
By Frank B. Sanborn 

Ptblic Health 

Conclusions 147 

Recommendations 148 

Relation of Milk to Public Health 150 

Where Milk Sold in Lawrence Is Produced 152 

Inspection of Dairies 153 

Examples of Good Dairies 161 

Examples of Faults in Dairies 167 

List of Good Dairies 174 

The Hood Farms 176 



CONTENTS 9 

Page 

Turner Centre Dairying Association 179 

Milk Bottling Plants 180 

Ice Cream Plants 185 

Milk as Disease Carrier 187 

Recommendations for Improving Milk Supply 188 

Heating or Pasteurizing 191 

Supervision of Bottling Plants 198 

Inspection of Dairies 202 

Laboratory Tests 204 

Publicity and Prices 204 

Organization of Producers 206 

List of Producers 209 

List of Contractors 214 

Water Supply of Lawrence 217 

Source 217 

Filtration 217 

Value of Pure Water 221 

Sanitary Survey of 1850 223 

Sewage and Garbage Disposal 225 

Outlets for Sewage and Manufacturing Wastes 232 

The Spicket River 233 

Garbage Disposal 236 

Disposal of Store Wastes 238 

Dumping Grounds for Refuse 239 



io LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Page 

Board of Health 241 

Duties of Board 241 

The Lawrence Board of Health 242 

Lawrence City Departments 246 

An Efficient Board of Health 247 

Infectious Diseases by Wards 248 

Diagram of Rate of Infectious Diseases 252 

Diagram of Expenditures of City Departments 255 

Map of Civic Agencies 258 

Summary of the Report on Public Health 259 

The Milk Supply 259 

The Board of Health 262 

The Population and Its Relation to Public Health 263 



THE REPORT OF THE LAWRENCE 
SURVEY 



INTRODUCTION 

By Wilbur E. Rowell 

The City of Lawrence is essentially an industrial community. 
It was intentionally created to be such a community. First came 
the recognition by a land surveyor of the water power existing- here 
in the Merrimack river. Next was enlisted the interest of Boston 
merchants and manufacturers. In 1845 was begun the erection 
of a dam across the river. There was no village on the site of the 
present city. The power was developed and factories were built, 
and people came here to do the work of construction and operation. 
It is not exactly true to say that the manufacturers brought people 
here, either in the forties and fifties or in recent years. Oppor- 
tunities were offered and people came. First came people of New 
England birth, and English and Scotch workers skilled in textiles; 
then came Irish, later French Canadians and Germans, and recently 
people from the Mediterranean shores and Eastern Europe. 

It is to be noted that the impulse for growth has never come 
from within the city's own life; but always from abroad. Men 
living elsewhere have built mills in Lawrence, and a population 
has gathered and swelled in numbers to perform the labor of 
carrying on the industries. Accordingly, the traditions and re- 
sources of a self-contained, or self-sufficient society have never 
teen available in the development of the city. Whatever com- 
munity good has been achieved has been such as a society of 
working people could gain for themselves, under the favorable 
laws and customs of this Commonwealth. Whatever may be 
lacking is to some extent explained and excused by the same con- 
siderations. 

Lawrence is like a great workshop, so to speak. It is not 
the trading centre of a surrounding territory; nor the social centre 
of outlying villages ; nor the home of families who have won wealth 
or culture in past generations. Many a city of half its size does 
have all these characteristics; and it is obvious that they are 
important elements in the common welfare of such cities. Law- 
rence has always had the difficult problem of the conduct of 
manufactures in a manner to secure prosperity on the one hand 



16 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

and the welfare of the working people on the other. The writer 
likes to think that his city is working out a typical modern problem 
for other communities as well as for itself; that our troubles and 
our shortcomings are not due to peculiar faults of our own, but 
belong to nearly every American industrial city; and that if one 
has faith in the future of our country as. a whole, he is entitled 
to cherish the same faith in the worthy future of this city. 

The following studies are intended as a partial self-examina- 
tion, undertaken in the hope that better understanding may lead 
to better achievement. The idea had been in the minds of the 
trustees of the White Fund for some time when they found them- 
selves able to secure the assistance of Mr. Francis H. McLean, then 
Field Secretary of the Charity Organization Department of the 
Russell Sage Foundation, now General Secretary of the National 
Association of Societies for Organizing Charity. Mr. McLean 
came to Lawrence in December, 19 10, and laid down the plan of 
the Survey. Mr. Robert E. Todd was secured to conduct the 
examination of housing conditions. Mr. Todd brought to this 
work the results of much experience in similar investigations else- 
where, and an extremely wide and accurate knowledge of this 
particular subject. The health investigation was conducted by Mr. 
Frank B. Sanborn, Professor of Civil Engineering in Tufts 
College. Prof. Sanborn had given special attention to hydraulic 
and sanitary engineering, and had experience in similar investiga- 
tions. Mr. Todd and Prof. Sanborn upon beginning their 
respective tasks were given full and independent control of the 
investigations which they conducted. The entire expense of the 
Survey has been paid by appropriations from the White Fund. 

It remains to give a brief account of the White Fund. One 
of the men born on the farms that occupied the site of Lawrence 
was Daniel A. White. His birth was in the year of the Declaration 
of Independence. He was a graduate of Harvard College of the 
Class of 1797. Fie was a member of Congress, and later for many 
years judge of the Essex Probate Court. In 1852 he gave to 
trustees a considerable tract of land, of which the site of the 
present Public Library building is a part, to be sold so that the 
proceeds should provide a fund for the maintenance of a course 



INTRODUCTION 17 

of lyceum lectures. It is interesting to notice that Judge White 
was seventy-six years old when he established this fund and that 
he had lived nearly all his life away from the town of his birth, 
being then a resident of Salem. It was according to the best New 
England traditions that he should feel a responsibility for the new 
city which was growing up about his birthplace, and should make 
a generous provision for its welfare. The fund much exceeded 
the needs of the lecture course; happily the founder foresaw this 
possibility, and the trust contains the broad power to use the fund 
" to promote the moral, intellectual and Christian advancement and 
instruction of the inhabitants of the town of Lawrence." 

The trustees of the White Fund with their terms of service 
have been as follows : 

Charles S. Storrow, 1852 - 1865 

Nathaniel G. White, 1852 - 1886 

Henry K. Oliver, 1852 - 1873 

George D. Cabot, 1865 ~ 1898 

James H. Eaton, 1873 " T 9 01 

Charles U. Bell, 1887 - 

Wilbur E. Rowell, 1899- 

Walter E. Parker, 1901 - 

The lecture course was begun in 1864. The introductory 
lecture was by Dr. James Walker, President of Harvard Univer- 
sity; the other lecturers of that year were Rev. George Putnam, 
Richard H. Dana, Jr., Rev. Joseph P. Thompson, Ralph Waldo 
Emerson, and Oliver Wendell Holmes. While it is to be feared 
that not every course has reached that standard, it is true that 
eminent men have been heard in every year; and that courses 
of a high degree of excellence have been of frequent occurrence. 
Many undertakings for the public welfare within the terms of the 
trust have received assistance from its funds. 



THE PLAN OF THE SURVEY 

In the winter of 1910-11 the writer was requested by the Trustees 
of the White Fund to recommend to them a certain line of social 
inquiry, the cost of which would come within certain limitations fixed 
by the free income of the fund. At the same time, though naturally 
this has not been embodied in any formal action, he was informed that 
dependent upon the values revealed in this investigation, might be 
further action of the Trustees in later years, as their funds permitted 
other investigations of a similar character. In other words, he was 
made to understand that this proposed first inquiry, while self- 
contained, need not be considered as the whole, but as part of a 
possible whole yet to be created. Outside of these considerations no 
limitations whatever were put upon the scope of the proposed investi- 
gation, nor was the slightest suggestion made by any of the Trustees 
as to the advisability of this or that field being omitted because of the 
economic and social make-up of Lawrence. The only limitation in 
fact was that the investigation should cover Lawrence and be for the 
education of its citizens, thus coming within the provisions of the 
trust imposed upon the trustees of the Fund. 

Armed with such a carte blanche, so far at least as offering pro- 
posals were concerned, it was evident that what was required was to 
find some principles of elimination which would logically point out our 
field. Much ground could be covered superficially, or a more limited 
area with some greater degree of thoroughness. No other policy than 
the last was thinkable, considering the circumstances. An educational 
fund, such as the White Fund, could not publish anything which was 
not thorough as far as it went. 

Therefore it was evident that a search should be made for the 
definite beginning point, and that proceeding along the road which 
there lay stretched out, we should travel just as far as we could and 
still see what in detail lay on both sides of the road. 

Naturally the beginning point seemed to be some understanding 
of topography and physical characteristics. Following that, those 
conditions which affect all, or nearly all ; and what could these be 
excepting questions of public health and of housing. Housing is 
mentioned apart from public health because it presents other problems 
than the purely physical. In the first drafts of the plan submitted 
there were schedules covering education and public recreation. But 



20 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

it soon became evident that these could not be reached. This for the 
reason that the extremely serious housing conditions, revealed by the 
most superficial of observations, plainly indicated that a very highly 
specialized and extensive investigation would here be required. In 
the field of public health it was later revealed that as extenisve an 
investigation would have to be made of milk, another one of the 
fundamentals affecting all. Another fundamental, water, required 
no such inquiry. So our fundamentals are housing, milk, water, other 
general public problems, prefaced by a topographical sketch. So to 
a later day must be postponed consideration of education, recreation, 
child welfare, and so on along the line to living and economic con- 
siderations. 

But the foundations have been laid, and the fundamentals which 
affect all community life, have been presented. 

Two experts have been engaged in making the investigations 
which are here presented. The soundness of their methods and the 
scientific character of their researches are evident. So far as their 
individual deductions or conclusions are concerned they stand essen- 
tially as they have been presented and for their individual verity the 
investigators themselves must be responsible. 

In closing this introduction it is well to say that this is to be no 
fruitless investigation, but that the first steps have been taken to form 
the necessary organization to carry on the propaganda for the success- 
ful attacking of those evils which these investigations reveal. 

Francis H. McLean. 



TOPOGRAPHY OF LAWRENCE 

Lawrence is situated on both sides of the Merrimack River, about 
twenty-three miles from its mouth, in the heart of a fertile country, 
wooded to perhaps 10 per cent, of its area, within a raidus of five 
miles. The city is bounded on the north by Methuen, on the east by 
the Merrimack and Shawsheen rivers, which separate the city from 
the town of North Andover, on the south by Andover, and on the 
west by Andover and Methuen. The territory of the city extends 
about a mile and one-third north and about a mile and one-half south 
of the Merrimack, and is about three miles in extreme width east and 
west. The area is about 4577 acres, 2097 being south and 2216 north 
of the Merrimack, with about 264 acres in the river itself. The 
Shawsheen river, about fifty feet wide, which forms a part of the 
eastern boundary of the city, winds gracefully through a wooded 
defile, about twenty feet below the broad and gently sloping sandy 
plain, which at an average elevation of fifty feet above sea level 
stretches southerly from the Merrimack to the range of wooded hills, 
extending at an elevation varying to 200 feet above sea level, along 
the entire southern boundary. In the westerly section of this range 
are located the quarries of gneiss which furnish the stone for the 
foundations (and in one important case, of the superstructure), of 
all the principal buildings of the city. This ledge which underlies the 
whole ridge appears to terminate in an abrupt wall of rock some fifty 
feet high, known as Den Rock, around which cluster many weird 
legends. 

The Merrimack, which is about 600 feet wide, is crossed obliquely 
a little above the centre of the city by the great dam, 900 feet long, 
and from near it run the two canals down along each bank of the river, 
the lesser one on the south, the principal one on the north, furnishing 
the water power for the mammoth mills which form the life of the 
city. North of this canal in a valley something over a mile wide, and 
averaging, like the plain on the south of the Merrimack, fifty feet 
above the sea, is located the most populous part of the city. Bounding 
this valley on the west rise the twin summits of Tower Hill to a 
height of 245 and 248 feet above the sea. 

This hill is in the line of the famous " Indian Ridge " which Dr. 
Hitchcock particularly mentions, and which has been studied and 
mapped for a distance of some thirty miles. The nucleus of this hill 



22 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

as also of Prospect Hill on the east, belong to the " till " or ground 
moraine, with superficial deposits of sandy gravel covering the whole 
eastern slope to the summit. Extending to the north the valley termi- 
nates at the foot of the more gentle slopes of Clover Hill, the summit 
of which, 153 above the sea, has been called Sunset Ridge. On the 
east is Prospect Hill, which attains an elevation of 190 feet above sea 
level, with a moraine of sandy gravel covering its eastern slope. 

The Spicket River, (about the size of the Shawsheen) falling 
forty feet in its course through the city, furnishing three mill privi- 
leges (one of which has been purchased by the city) runs in an easterly 
direction about midway through the northern portion of the city to 
Prospect Hill, where it turns abruptly almost at right angles and 
flows in a southeasterly direction along- the foot of the hill, and 
discharges into the Merrimack River about half a mile above the 
mouth of the Shawsheen. 

The surface of the valley is generally composed of drift deposited 
several feet deep upon trap rock, which crops out above the general 
surface in various places forming a line of low elevations extending 
in a northeasterly direction from south of the Merrimack to the 
abrupt bend in the Spicket at the foot of Prospect Hill. 

The drift forming the surface varies from a coarse mortar sand 
to a fine " quicksand " which tenaciously holds water, and forms a 
treacherous material in excavation. This latter is particularly pre- 
valent north of the Spicket, where the surface was formerly damp, 
but which drainage has mostly dried up. Above the general plain are 
here and there slight elevations, forming very desirable places of 
residence. 

Arthur D. Marble. 



LETTER OF THE CITY ENGINEER 

To the Trustees of the White Fund: 

In December, 1910, Mr. McLean asked me to answer cer- 
tain questions, and I made a reply in March, 191 1, which I have now 
revised at the request of Professor Sanborn. The original letter of 
December 16, 1910, asked me to answer the following questions : — 

(1) The engineering problems which will probably be solved 
the coming year. 

(2) The possible engineering problems of the future. 

(3) Map showing the sewered and unsewered sections of the 
city. 

(4) Outline description of the general sewer system. 

(5) Mileage of paved streets. 

(6) Permanent sidewalks. 

(7) Other important data. 

The map you already have, answering No. 3. 

I will not consider No. 1, as too uncertain. 

(2) The future engineering problems undoubtedly will include 
the extension and improvement of the waterworks system. The 
growth of the city will require an additional supply. This may come 
from a source more remote than the Merrimack river, or it may come 
from the improvement of the present filtration plant at the Pumping 
Station. This improvement may be the covering of a part of the old 
filter built in 1892, or it may be a new covered filter built in another 
location. If the latter, then a concrete bottom could be laid in the 
part of the old filter bed from which comes the most trouble on account 
of the permeability of its present earth bottom. 

These improvements or additions to the filtration plant will not 
probably increase the purity of the water supply, but it may remove 
some of the color in the city water, on account of cutting off some of 
the ground water which now finds its way into the old filter bed. 

The covering of the filter would increase the amount of water 
capable of passing through the bed, and prevent the freezing of the 
surface in winter, thereby decreasing the cost of maintenance, and 
allow of more frequent cleaning of the surface during cold weather. 

The improvement in the Spicket river which was made during the 
fall of 1910 eliminated the offensive condition of that river, so that 
during the summer of 191 1 there were no complaints from property 
owners because of foul odors along the banks of the stream. So long 
as the river remains an open channel, constant and intelligent super- 



24 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

vision will, however, be necessary to prevent its being made a dump- 
ing place for all sorts of refuse by those living near to and on the 
banks of the river. 

It is quite possible that sometime in the future the river will be 
walled and covered, and the area thus formed be made into a park. 

Other engineering problems include the disposal of the sewage 
of the city in some more sanitary and inoffensive way than discharging 
it from open sewer outlets into the Merrimack river, which outlets 
now are, at certain stages of the river, some distance from the thread 
of the stream : 

The abolition of grade crossings : 

The construction of one or more bridges over the Merrimack 
river : 

The relocation of the railroad station in South Lawrence, con- 
necting the same with North Lawrence by an electric car line, and 
discontinuing the " cab " train : 

The sewerage of the section of the city lying on the westerly slope 
of Tower Hill, and the disposal of the sewage from the same so 
as not to make it an offense to the citizens of the district and an added 
pollution to our water supply. 

The disposal of the surface water from this same section. 

The sewerage of the southerly slope of Phillips Hill, and of the 
valley of Cold Spring brook. These sections are separated by ridges 
from the Merrimack river, and naturally drain into the Shawsheen 
river. 

The State Board of Health will probably not allow the sewage 
to be discharged into the Shawsheen river, and the problem is how to 
dispose of it at reasonable cost. 

(4) Generally speaking, the sewerage of Lawrence is on the 
combined plan. The outlets are chiefly into the Merrimack river, but 
one main sewer discharges into the Spicket river. 

There are also fourteen overflow sewers in the Spicket river, 
which are only in commission during a heavy rainfall, and the matter 
then discharged is almost entirely street wash. 

Portions of the city, notably parts of Tower Hill, Prospect Hill, 
and the valley of " Bloody " brook, are sewered on the separate system, 
the surface water finding its way through street gutters to the nearest 
water course or river. The separate system sewers cannot take care 
of any roof, yard or other surface water. 

The sewage from all the sewers is discharged in a crude state 
into the river. 



CITY ENGINEER 25 



(5) Street surface in Lawrence: 




Granite block paving- 


9.18 miles 


Asphalt 


0-33 " 


Wood 


0.09 " 


Brick 


0.42 " 


Macadam 


25.10 " 


Earth 


79-51 " 


Total streets open about 


114.63 miles 



(6) Permanent sidewalks, principally of tar concrete, are laid 
throughout the thickly inhabited part of the city. Of late, many walks 
of cement concrete, commonly called granolithic, have been laid. The 
city and the property owner share equally on the first cost of these 
sidewalks, and the city bears the expense of all subsequent repairs. 

(7) Under this number might properly be mentioned the Park 
system. This was begun by the Essex Company by the gift of the 
Common, which has an area of about seventeen acres in the very 
heart of the thickly settled part of the city. Through all the years 
since the early days, the Essex Company has from time to time given 
areas for parks which are scattered all over the city. These include 
Storrow Park in Ward one, 10.75 acres, the Amphitheatre, 7.5 acres, 
in W r ard five, Union Park, 11.25 acres, and Stockton Park, 0.4 acres, 
in Ward six, and lately the bank of the Shawsheen river, 15 acres, 
in Ward six, which we hope will eventually be transformed into a 
beautiful parkway leading out to Den Rock, where the city has 
acquired by purchase about eighty acres of wooded hills and river 
valley, including the picturesque rocky cliff. In addition to the parks 
above enumerated, there are the following- : 

Jail Park area 0.80 acres 
Durant Park " 0.04 " 

Pine Street Park " 0.03 " 

Milton Street Park " 0.02 " 

Crescent Park " 0.08 " 

The last four items are triangular plots of ground at the junction 
of various streets, which have been graded and curbed. There are 
also areas for playsteads in Wards one, three, four and six, all of 
which have been improved and graded, and some of them frunished 
with equipment for the enjoyment of the children. Some of the parks 
have also been equipped in the same way. Ward four has two play- 



26 LAAVRENCE SURVEY 

steads, one a large one suitable for ball-playing ,and one smaller, more 
particularly for children's use. 

To the problems of the future might be added the poles and wires 
belonging to the public service corporations, and their proper regula- 
tion and disposition. 

A topographical description of the city is included herewith. 
Yours truly, 

Arthur D. Marble, City Engineer 
April 21, 1912 



HOUSING CONDITIONS 

By 

ROBERT E. TODD 



This examination includes in its census and 
some other statistics all houses in the city, but 
the rest of the inquiry does not include the 
houses of Lawrence as a whole. Lawrence 
has many good houses. The great majority 
of those outside the center are such. Though 
all defective houses are not at the center and 
all center houses are not defective, the city's 
pressing housing needs are at the center:, 
hence that is the field covered in this inquiry. 
The exact scope of the examination is shown 
in the diagram on page 54. In connection 
with the description of the most important 
conditions an estimate is made of the probable 
extent of such conditions. 



HOUSING CONDITIONS 



One of the former trustees of the White Fund, a banker and 
a man who had the interests of Lawrence near his heart, used to 
delight in speaking of the city as " a city of homes." This may 
have been true a decade ago. It is evidently the fact now that 
Lawrence is by more than one-half a city of tenements. 

But the term tenement should be given the arbitrary and 
technical meaning described later. The essential idea in it is not 
necessarily bad housing but the nearness of families under the 
same roof; for, the word tenement, a "holding," and the word 
apartment have meaning only as opposed to the complemental 
idea that several families have quarters in the same house. It is 
the nearness with the common use of space and other circumstances, 
as well as the nearness of houses to each other, that needs to be 
controlled by legislation. No greater need exists in Lawrence. 

The Early Houses 

It will be seen in the following paragraphs that the early 
houses were nearly all small and that the large houses have been 
built recently. While the work on the dam and canal were still 
going on, as early as 1847, the m ^ owners began building houses 
for the operatives and continued at intervals for about a decade. 
Most of these houses were in brick blocks located along Canal 
and Methuen Streets. Many of them have been supplanted by mill 
warehouses, offices and other buildings, but about seventy-two are 
still in use, though now largely owned by individuals. Most of 
the houses are three stories high, but some of them have dormer 
rooms on fourth floors. One square of forty two-story brick 
houses which were built by the Lawrence Machine Company about 
1847 an d are still in use, are similar to that satisfactory type of 
house which for years has been so popular in Philadelphia. 

When the dam was being built, many of the laborers, on it 
lived in South Lawrence in the fields not far from the work. 



32 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Their small shacks or huts were built hurriedly of slabs and 
rough lumber, with roofs of over-lapping boards, with sod piled 
high around the walls, and with stove pipe chimneys. These 
cabins stood for a good many years, but gradually their occupants 
left, or bought a right to the locations; and the last two of the 
shacks, occupied to the end, were torn down, one in 1894 and 
the other in 1898. 

In the same period houses of a different class were being 
built in the districts to the east and north of the Common. They 
were almost as small as the shacks, but much more durable and 
with much better interiors. Usually each house had its own 
garden, and each occupant owned a few goats, pigs and hens, and 
kept the rural habit of laying in such stores both of meats and 
vegetables as would carry the family through the whole winter. 

Several of these houses, improved and well painted, indicate 
present prosperity and comfort, and look like good homes; a few 
remain in use unaltered; many have been moved to the rear of 
the lot; some are vacant, or used as sheds; and many have been 
torn down. In a few instances, two, three or four have been 
moved up together, attached and extended, and make, as rented, 
a most interesting jumble of tenements. There are still standing 
at various locations, but not now in use, three or four peculiarly 
long and narrow houses that at once remind one of houses seen in 
Irish and English pictures. 

Except those built by the mills, nearly all houses were made 
of wood. There were some wooden blocks, a considerable number 
of double cottages and houses, and several of that type of four- 
family double house of two stories with attic rooms which is so 
common in most of the mill towns of New England. As late as 
1875, the three-story houses were probably less than ten in 
number, though the population had reached 35,000. Between 1875 
and 1895 the three-story, flat-roof house began to be more common, 
though its incoming was quite gradual. 

There is one instance of a four-story frame house which is 
said to have been built before 1850. But as late as 1895 there 
were not more than six or seven of these houses without stores, 
and about the same number with stores, making altogether less 



THE NUMBER OF APART 

Grouped for Each Year in Relat 

Illustrated 
June i, 1906 to 



»» 19 



~>1806 




In Houses of In Houses of In Houses of In Houses of 

1 and 2 Apts. 3 Apts. More than 3 Apts. 1 and 2 Apts. 



In Houses oi 
3 A Pts. 



*■ 1 9 O 8 «•« 




In Houses of 


In Houses of 


In Houses of 


1 and 2 Apts. 


3 Apts. 


More than 3 Apt 



In Ho 
1 and 



ENTS IN NEW HOUSES 
to the Three Family Houses 
Area, 
ne 30, 191 1 



Y «* 




In Houses of 
More than 3 Apts. 



In Houses of 
1 and 2 Apts. 



In Houses of In Houses of 
3 Apts. More than 3 Apts. 



►» 



1810 




of 

)tS. 



In Houses of In Houses of In Houses In Houses In Houses of 

3 Apts. More than 3 Apts. of 1 and of More 

2 Apts. 3 Apts. than 3 Apts. 



HOUSING CONDITIONS 33 

than fifteen four-story frame houses sixteen years ago. Since 
then the number of these houses has increased rapidly. 

The Future of Lawrence as a City of Tenements 

The most common definition of a tenement house includes 
every house which has three apartments or more. At the present 
time Lawrence has : 

17,988 apartments in 8,202 houses: 

8,599 apartments in houses for one and two families 

9,389 apartments in houses with three or more families. 

Forty-eight per cent of the families in Lawrence are living in one 

and two-family houses; the remaining fifty-two per cent are living 

in houses of three apartments or more. 

The number and size of the houses which are now being 
erected can be found in the records of the office of building 
inspector which was established just prior to June 1st, 1906. In 
the five years and one month ending June 30, 191 1, there were 
constructed : 

3063 apartments in 1052 new houses : 

735 in houses for one and two families 24.0 percent 

1335 in houses for three families 43.6 per cent 

993 in houses for more than three families 32.4 per cent 
In the accompanying sketch the capacity of these new houses is 
shown as they have been built year by year. The number of tene- 
ments which were constructed in old houses by additions and 
alterations in the first four and one-half years is 283. 

Thus we see two facts : more than one-half of all families 
are living in houses for three or more families; and among the 
new buildings the large houses greatly predominate. Only about 
one-fourth of the families that have been provided for in new 
houses are living in one and two-family houses. In every one 
hundred new apartments, seventy-six are being built in houses 
of three apartments or more. 

In other words, the character of the homes of the majority 
of families is being rapidly and radically altered. This fact alone, 
as a general statement based on the building operations for the 
last five years, is abundant reason why the citizens of Lawrence 
should be seriously interested to determine whether the changes 



34 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

in forms of houses are good and suitable for the preservation of 
that healthy family life, upon which the permanent welfare of any 
community depends. 

In considering this question, we must not be too easily 
influenced by the fact that a large number of the three-family 
houses located in districts outside of the center are good-looking 
houses. This is only part of the story, and in Lawrence it is less 
than half of it. Bad housing is not a question of averages and 
majorities. The majority of the houses in a city may be excellent, 
and the minority so exceedingly deficient as to be a grave peril 
to the permanent welfare of the community. 

The Number of Apartments at the Center 

In Lawrence not only is there a rapid increase in the number 
of families which are being provided for in the larger houses, 
but there is steady growth in the process which is crowding houses 
together at the center of the city. In every ioo apartments of 
the city, 19 are located in South Lawrence, and 81 in North 
Lawrence. In a central district bounded on the south by Essex 
Street, on the east by Union and Garden Streets and the Spicket 
River, on the north by Maple, Auburn, Cross, Broadway, and 
Acton Streets, on the west by West Street, Bradford Place and 
the railroad, there are 300 acres. The congestion within this 
central district, relative to the city's area and population, is most 
remarkable. 

For every 100 Acres in the districts named, there are 

In the central district, 2,036 apartments 

In the rest of North Lawrence, 443 

In South Lawrence, 152 

In other words, the density of apartments in the central district 
is about four and one-half times the density in the rest of North 
Lawrence, and more than twelve times the density in South 
Lawrence. 

Yet the houses are made of wood. The need for ceasing to 
use wood for the houses at the center is very great. It is this 
piling up risk upon risk that has made a national burden which, 
though general, is nevertheless a very real burden. It is made 
general by our arrangements for paying fire losses. 



FIRE BURDEN AND MENACE 



What We Burn Each Year 

The true character of the fire loss and the extent of its 
burden upon us should be brought with such force to the con- 
science of the intelligent citizens that they will at once bring 
effective action for its reduction. We are extravagantly wasteful 
of our social wealth and we need to be told it many times and 
in many ways. 

If a man were to sell all the property he had accumulated during his 
life-time for about $20,000 in gold, put the gold in a basket, and, taking 
passage on a steamer, drop it overboard in mid-ocean, there is no one 
who would not say that the property was completely wasted. When 
property goes up in smoke, the loss is just as absolute; but by our arrange- 
ment for distributing the fire loss over the ninety millions of persons 
in the United States, it is not directly borne by any given individual, and 
its true nature is not seen. 

The fire game which we Americans are playing is a wonderfully great 
game. Every man, woman and child in the country participates, but, 
strange to say, few of us realize that we are in it. We all need to be 
told how it is played. Whether we carry fire insurance or not, we pay 
landlords and merchants for carrying it. In effect, whether consciously 
or unconsciously, whether willingly or unwillingly, it is as if each house- 
holder in the country who is at the head of a family of four, takes a good 
chair, or a serviceable bookcase, or six valuable books, or any other 
articles that have a value of eleven dollars,* and goes every year to the 
landlords and the merchants, with a statement, " Here is what we desire 
to have burned up this year." They reply, "All right! We are a young 
and rich country. The nation at large will see that your iwish is carried 
out. But these goods are awkward to ship to the nation's great tax- 
gatherers, the insurance men. Give us, instead, eleven of your hard-earned 
dollars." These dollars the landlords and merchants stamp " Money to 
burn," and pass on to the insurance men. The insurance men are in a 
ring. They throw the money in various piles within their circle and 
stand guard over it. Up rush the Citizens called Unfortunate, Ignorant, 
Indifferent, Careless, Fraud and Thief, each crying, " Hold, did you not 
see that smoke? That was my building with all the contents. To be sure, 
I built cheap. What of it? Everybody's doing that. Where is my share 
of iwhat was set aside this year to be burned?" The circle of insurance 
men send out representatives, investigate, judge the claims, and parcel 
out the money. It's a great game. 

*The source for figures and quotations relative to housing conditions 
are listed on page 143. 



36 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

During each year for the last decade, this country has turned 
into smoke $216,000,000, not including" fire losses in forests, in 
mines or at sea. These annual losses have increased in the last 
thirty years 134 per cent, although the population of the country 
has increased but 73 per cent. "If all the buildings burned last 
year (1910) in the United States were placed together on both 
sides of a street, they would make an avenue of desolation reaching 
from Chicago to New York, and, although one seriously injured 
person were rescued every thousand feet, at every three-quarters 
of a mile, a man, woman or child would nevertheless be found 
burned to death." And it would take eighteen hours on the fastest 
train, or five days of daylight by trolley, to view without stopping 
this avenue of desolation and death. 

Huge as that price is, it is not all we are paying for the use 
of fire, for it costs money to fight fires. Thousands of men and 
thousands of pieces of expensive apparatus are employed con- 
stantly. In fire defence, this country spends yearly, by an authori- 
tative estimate, $241,000,000, an expense that is entirely additional 
to the $216,000,000 that is burned up each year. 

The Fire Burden in Lawrence 

Compared with other cities, Lawrence's record in the matter 
of fires in the past is a remarkably good one in nearly all points, 
such as confining the fires to the building or place of origin, number 
of fires to 1,000 population, losses which are not insured, and the 
average total loss by fire each year : though the record is slightly 
less favorable in the cost of maintaining the fire department. In 
each year of the decade ending December 31, 1909, the total loss 
in Lawrence has been $53,367, of which $49,975 was insurance 
loss, and $3,392 was uninsured. Fifty-three thousand dollars is 
a large amount of property to burn up each year. It is quite three 
times the amount of money which Lawrence spends yearly for 
the maintenance of the public library, 

Yet this is only about one-quarter of the amount that fires 
are costing Lawrence. The total amount of fire insurance 
premiums paid each year, by an authoritative and conservative 
estimate, exceeds $200,000. Because so many of the other cities 



FIRE MENACE 37 

of the country, as well as Lawrence, have not been willing to 
restrict themselves in the use of wood, Lawrence business men are 
paying out every year more than $150,000 which is consumed 
elsewhere in the country; and this waste is increasing at a very 
rapid rate. It demands everywhere and particularly in the cities 
of eastern Massachusetts a radical change from the present lack 
of building regulations. Cambridge, Worcester and Lowell have 
made a beginning. 

The Four Story Wooden Houses 

The most striking fact about houses in all cities in Massachu- 
setts is that they are almost exclusively built of wood. Outside 
of the center in a few cities, such as Boston, Worcester, Springfield 
and Holyoke, practically all houses are frame. Building in 
Lawrence goes to the extreme in this respect. Fully ninety-seven 
per cent of the houses in Lawrence are made of wood. Three- 
story wooden houses with large floor areas unbroken by fire walls 
are a constant menace to their occupants, no matter where in the 
city the houses are located. When these houses are located at the 
crowded center, they also magnify seriously the conflagration 
hazard. This is equally true of all four-story frame houses and 
in addition there is a greatly increased life risk for all who live 
upon the fourth floor. They are farther from the ground, and 
the speed and the volume of a fire can be very much greater than 
it could be in a three-family house. Also the four-story frame 
house is usually much weaker structurally than the smaller houses. 
In fire insurance rating, houses of one to three apartments are in 
one class, those with four to eight families in another. In 
building practice in most cities four-story frame houses are 
relatively very infrequent. Many cities prohibit them. There is 
a concensus of opinion that they are dangerous, too dangerous to 
be tolerated. They are especially dangerous in the congested 
wooden center in Lawrence. 

In the number of such houses which have been built. Worcester 
and Lawrence exceed all other cities in Massachusetts, and the 
condition in Lawrence is much worse than it is in Worcester. 
Lawrence has 268 four-story frame houses, 216 of them located 



38 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

in the central district of 300 acres, which is described elsewhere. 
A majority occur in blocks where the three-story houses have 
already crowded out most of the small buildings and where rear 
buildings are the rule, some of them being four stories high. 
Worcester has 120 four-story frame houses. Located on its side 
hills, there are also 200 three-story and basement houses which 
have four families, one above the other, or three families above 
a store. They are not quite comparable with the four-story frame 
house in that one end or one side is only three stories from the 
ground. On the other hand they are much more dangerous than 
the ordinary three-story frame building. With them included, 
the number of these houses in Worcester is 320. They are, 
however, scattered about the city, and are not in one relatively 
small area as in Lawrence, and where they occur there is greater 
distance between houses. Furthermore, four-story frame structures 
are now prohibited everywhere in the city, and the three-story and 
basement houses are not allowed to accommodate more than one 
family on a floor, unless the building is provided with a brick wall 
from front to rear, and from cellar to roof, with one apartment 
on each side of it. Worcester has a central fire district which is 
more than twice the area in North Lawrence which lies south of 
the Spicket River and east of the railroad. Within it no new frame 
houses can be built. Additional to this there are two other fire 
districts containing about 126 acres, where the three-story and 
brick basement houses are allowed, provided they are placed no 
nearer than seven feet to the side or rear line of the lot. Such 
buildings must also have tar and gravel or slate roof. 

Lowell has 140 four-story frame houses, which is a few more 
than half the number in Lawrence. In August, 1906, Lowell 
prohibited the construction of these houses anywhere and 
established a good-sized fire district within which wooden buildings 
may no longer be erected. Since Lowell ceased to construct this 
form of building, Lawrence has built nearly one hundred. 

There are three cities in the state which have smaller areas 
than the 6.53 square miles in Lawrence, and all three cities have 
greater densities of population. Lawrence has 13,210 per square 
mile. Somerville's density of population is at the rate of 17,160 



FIRE MENACE 39 

per square mile, and the city has not over 50 four-story frame 
houses. Cambridge, with a density of 16,050 per square mile, 
has no houses of this kind. Chelsea, with a present density of 
14,420 per square mile, is not comparable, because the houses in 
half its area have so recently been reduced to ashes. The dis- 
tribution of the population in Lawrence is so uneven that at the 
center the density is more than five times greater than it is in all 
the city. Such center density is a result of four-story houses, 
rather than a reason for them. With the 268 four-story frame 
houses in Lawrence we should compare the number of such houses 
in Fall River, 95; in Salem, 90; in New Bedford, 55; in Lynn, 
less than 50. 

The Coming Conflagration 

The yearly fire loss in Lawrence, $53,367, serves well to 
illustrate the tremendous loss in a conflagration. This is less than 
a sixtieth of what was recently burned in Bangor in a few hours. 
Chelsea burned two hundred and twenty-two times as much in 
seven hours. It is in the daily fear of such disaster that many of 
the citizens of Lawrence are living. As one prominent business 
man remarked recently, " It hasn't come yet. But we will surely 
come down to the center some day with the face of the earth 
changed." 

The sticks are all laid for a most superb bonfire. With the 
prevailing winds as they are, from the west, and north of west, 
a fire that originated in the vicinity of Broadway at any point 
from Common Street to Cross, and broke from the control of the 
firemen at a time when a measurably high wind is blowing, could 
not fail to destroy the section north of Essex to the Common, 
and, if the wind were from the west, could hardly fail to sweep 
to the east around the Common to the Union Street district, and 
possibly cross the Spicket River to the shingle roofs of the section 
in the vicinity of Avon and Belmont Streets. Excluding, however, 
the latter district, the area threatened is 300 acres, and contains 
6108 apartments. 

It should be noted that this central district, as described, does 
not include the mercantile and mill buildings south of Essex Street, 
and that additional values are there endangered. 



4 o LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Besides the large number of four-story frame houses at the 
center, there were counted in the house census of this investigation 
1,000 shingle roofs in this area of 300 acres. As a form of con- 
struction, shingle roofs are quite comparable to paper hats as a 
form of clothing. 

" In the old days, roofs were covered with thatch. The process was 
to thatch a roof, watch it dry and eventually try to stop it from burning 
up. It was useless. We know that a thatch roof is not desirable. But 
we progressed slowly. Our next idea was to use wood in the form of 
shingles. We .simply changed the rate of deterioration. Shingles dry 
up and eventually burn. Some day we will learn that shingles should be 
given up and placed in the museum with thatch. 

" Have you ever thought of the first cost of a shingle roof? Then 
have you added the cost of the upkeep? Have you added the cost of the 
damages to materials under that roof? Have you watched a shingled 
roof catch fire? Or seen the sparks fly to the next shingled roof? Or 
realized that you were viewing a conflagration? 

" Many people have. Many cities have gone through this experience. 
The mayors telegraph for help. The papers are full of the pitiful details 
of homeless people, of wasted property, of appeals for subscriptions. A 
conflagration is a terrible menace hanging over many cities and the 
shingled roof is the main cause. The great fire in Chelsea, Massachusetts, 
spread horizontally, from roof to roof (burning down) instead of from 
wall to wall." 

The report on the City of Lawrence made in July, 1908, by 
the Committee on Fire Prevention of the National Board of Fire 
Underwriters, says concerning the Valley Street and Lowell Street 
district; "The potential hazard of this considerable area of large, 
compactly grouped frames is high. A fire once beyond the control 
of the fire department would become a most serious conflagration. 
The prevailing direction of high winds being from the west or 
northwest under ordinary conditions, the principal mercantile dis- 
trict would become involved and the mill district threatened. Even 
with the efficient fire department, the abundant water supply at 
moderate pressures and the good accessibility, the probability of 
a large fire is great, due to the character of the populuation and 
the extremely hazardous construction." 

The habits of the population in the congested district, as well 
as the lack of convenience in the houses, certainly add very 
materially to the fire risk. The conditions which attend the use of 











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FIRE MENACE 43 

the cellar, especially in the winter time, illustrate this. The stairs 
are frequently very narrow, winding, dark and, in a considerable 
number of instances, broken. In some of the cellars artificial light 
is absolutely necessary, and hence the striking of matches and the 
carrying of lamps is very common. It is most frequently the 
children who are sent to the cellar, and the load of fuel together 
with the lamp, and the conditions surrounding its use, make a 
daily risk that is excessive. 

The presence of piles of inflammable rubbish in the cellar add 
to the risk. Among the houses examined in six half blocks, an 
average of one in six had a serious amount of inflammable 
rubbish in the cellar. Where the condition occurs to the extent 
shown in the photographs, there can be no question about the risk 
involved. There surely need not be more than one such cellar 
in each of the 160 half -blocks at the center to make a conflagration 
hazard well worth periodic and efficient fire inspection. This the 
city has not had, but should have. 

Another illustration is the practice in lighting kitchen fires. 
Many tenements are deserted during school hours. All the adults 
work, and the children below school age are left in other tenements. 
Hence the kitchen fires are allowed to go out at least once, 
and in many cases twice, a day. At the end of each morning and 
afternoon, it is the school children who reach the house first, and 
upon them falls the duty of starting the kitchen fire. Many of 
them are not taught how to do it, and others are altogether too 
young to be trusted to do it safely. Kerosene is used, and used 
by very young children. In one apartment a small Italian boy not 
over eight years of age was seen at the stove starting the fire. 
He scratched so many matches and went so many times to a small 
closet that the attention of the writer was finally attracted, just 
as he was raising a can to pour oil into the open hole of the stove. 
A shout stopped him and a glance into the stove showed red 
embers. This youngster of eight years and his brother, not over 
six years old, were alone in the tenement. 

In Ohio and two other states, by legal enactment, the children 
are being taught in the schools the causes of fires, the dangers in 
handling materials, and what to do in time of fire. Lawrence 



44 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

would do well to secure at once the introduction of similar 
instruction in the public schools. 

The Suffering Inflicted by a Conflagration 

What conflagrations mean to the individuals who suffer in 
them, we do not sufficiently consider. A former Lawrence citizen, 
who passed through the Chelsea fire, afterwards described his 
experience. Having taken some bundles to a distance, he returned 
to his house for more. Soon a neighbor called to him, " Mr. B., 
are you in there? Come out as quick as you can. The next 
house is all ablaze and your roof has caught." Mr. B. escaped 
hurriedly, and, in referring to his loss, said : " No one, who has 
not gone through the experience, can possibly realize what are 
the sensations of those who were driven from their homes, and 
lost all their worldly goods by the flames." He had no insurance, 
and saved only a suit and a little other clothing. 

The life risk in Lawrence is greater than it was in Chelsea. 
In that city at the time of the fire, there was a density of popu- 
lation at the rate of 16,880 per square mile. The density in North 
Lawrence is at the rate of 20,732 per square mile, and in the 300 
acres of the conflagration district, it is at the rate of 72,000 per 
square mile. 

At the time of the conflagration in Chelsea, the 275 acres 
which were burned did not equal the present conditions in 
Lawrence in the congestion of wooden buildings. The buildings 
were not as high and they were not as near together. In Lawrence, 
in the 216 four-story frame houses of the 300 central acres, 
between 1800 and 2000 persons are living on fourth floors. As 
shown elsewhere in the report, there are altogether too many 
third and fourth floor apartments from which there is no 
adequate second egress. This condition is most serious, and, 
though the greatest risk involved is from fires that originate inside 
the houses, the lack of egress greatly complicates and increases 
the life risk at the time of a conflagration. But the possibility 
of safe exit is not the only factor in the probability of life disaster 
in a conflagration. In the historic newspaper fire of the Spring- 



FIRE MENACE 45 

field Union, in which about eight persons lost their lives, most 
of them perished because they were in such a condition of panic, 
that no one thought to break the glass in an elevator door which 
had blown shut and locked, and through which they might have 
escaped to safety, as others before them had escaped. The safe 
egress of everybody in a midnight sweeping conflagration might 
possibly take place and yet hundreds be injured by returning to 
their quarters at great risk with or without very much reason. 
The natural instinct to try to save money, papers and various 
articles, is, many times, responsible for more deaths than the 
original condition of peril in which the individuals were. 

The Chelsea fire began a little before eleven o'clock Sunday 
morning, and yet nineteen people lost their lives. It is hard to 
see how a conflagration in Lawrence, especially if it were to occur 
at night, could have a loss of life less than that which took place 
in Chelsea; and it might easily be many times greater. 

Our Responsibility 

Lawrence has never had any very large fire. The collapse 
of the Pemberton Mill when eighty-seven persons were killed, 
took place fifty-one years ago, and is not now remembered vividly 
enough to stir anyone to action. In 1906 the roof of a new rink 
fell in, just after a large crowd of spectators had left; and out 
of its dust came the present inadequate building code. In this 
record, the absence of any great fire has practically nothing to do 
with the danger from a sweeping conflagration, and the reckless- 
ness involved in continuing the present policy in the use of wood 
at the center. Lawrence is in the position of the small boy who 
repeatedly goes in swimming just above the dam. The argument 
that the city has been getting along well enough under present 
lack of restrictions is no better than the small boy's argument that 
he has never been drowned yet. Is it probable disaster or possible 
disaster which causes individuals to carry accident, life or fire 
insurance? The sum total of our lack of real interest, as individ- 
uals, in the welfare of the community in which we live is colossal. 



46 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

We desperately need to be jeered at in the manner of a recent 
newspaper editorial. 

" ' We are greatly shocked,' volunteers the head of 
the pulp and paper company whose dam, collapsing, 
brought death upon Austin, Penn. 

" A proper sentiment and typical. The American 
people are most convincing in moods of amazement and 
consternation. They are most themselves when they are 
* greatly shocked,' which they are pretty frequently. 

" Temperaments of less ardor and more calculation 
than theirs do not shock so effectively, because they get 
less exercise. Instead of celebrating calamity, less gifted 
people merely prevent it. Such a people, for example, 
would have heeded the first warning given by the Austin 
dam last year. They would not have permitted a 
moving picture of the deluge to be staged in a remote 
Pennsylvania valley. 

" It is left for Americans to know that in many 
theatres exit doors open inward or are locked during 
performances, and then to be greatly shocked when 587 
persons are burned to death in an Iroquois fire; to know 
that excursion steamers are often over-loaded, inade- 
quately manned, insufficiently provided with fire- 
fighting appliances, and then to be greatly shocked when 
a thousand persons lose their lives in a General Slocum 
disaster; to know that many factory lofts are unprovided 
with fire-escapes and factory hands unacquainted with 
the fire-drill, and then to be greatly shocked when 145 
girls are burned or crushed to death in an Asch Building 
horror. 

" By forestalling disaster the phlegmatic German and 
the dull-witted Englishman may make life safer in their 
jurisdictions; but that is dry, routine business that does 
not appeal to American emotions." 



FIRE MENACE 47 

The Loss of Population and of Uninsured Property 

The loss of population in Chelsea is interesting, as shown in 
the five-year periods subsequent to 1895. After a gain in 1900 of 
8.9 per cent, and in 1905 of 9.4 per cent, the loss in 1910 is 12.9 
per cent. There is possible of course only speculation as to how 
many persons would be forced to leave Lawrence after a sweeping 
conflagration, but the extent of the risk should be considered. 
In the central fire district mentioned, there are at least thirty 
thousand persons who could be rendered homeless by a sweeping 
conflagration. This would mean a very great loss of population 
for a long period. 

The fire report of the Underwriters says in a summary, 
" Structural conditions are poor except in the manufacturing 
district. The congested parts of the tenement district constitute 
a high conflagration hazard." The report concludes with the 
recommendations : 

'' That a complete building code be adopted. 
That the fire limits be extended. 
That the construction of frame tenements over three 

stories in height be prohibited. 
That incombustible roof coverings be required on all 
new or repaired buildings." 

About $3,000,000 of the $12,000,000 loss in Chelsea was not 
paid back in insurance. Is the amount daily in jeopardy in 
Lawrence much less than $10,000,000, and would the uninsured 
loss be much less than one-quarter of that sum? Can Lawrence 
afford to continue to add daily to this great risk? 

Concerning the city of Chelsea, the authentic insurance report 
of the conflagration said, " Chelsea openly acknowledged a de- 
plorable condition of affairs, and yet nothing was done to 
improve it." 

What will the record of the business men of Lawrence be? 



48 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

NUMBER OF HOUSES CLASSIFIED BY HEIGHT IN STORIES 



LOCATION HEIGHT BY STORIES 

NORTH LAWRENCE Front or ~ One and T Two and ^, c 

Rear ° ne one-half Tw ° one-half ThrCe Four FlVe 
SEC. 

A West of R. R. Tracks . . . F 4 312 232 486 225 18 

R 1 75 21 30 24 2 

B R. R. Tracks to Lawrence St.. F 5 375 156 679 735 no 

R 4 108 41 66 64 25 

C Lawrence to Prospect . . F 1 266 169 695 392 104 1 

R 1 68 30 46 38 24 

D East of Prospect St F o 277 149 198 82 o 



R o 16 10 



3 



Total Front Houses . . . 5671 10 1230 706 2058 1434 232 1 
Total Rear Houses . . . 703 6 267 102 148 129 51 o 

Total for North Lawrence . 6374 16 1497 808 2206 1563 283 1 



LOCATION HEIGHT BY STORIES 

SOUTH LAWRENCE Front or One and x Two and T , P r . 

D Une 1 if 1 wo 1 .£ 1 hree rour rive 

Hear one-halt one-hair 

SEC 

E West of Southern Div. R. R. 

Tracks F 1 166 18 159 60 6 

R 1 31 4 16 1 

F Southern Div. to Western Div. F 2 167 30 112 50 

R 7 4 1 1 

G East of Western Div. . . . F 1 232 146 400 155 4 

R 2 21 6 10 14 

Total Front Houses . 
Total Rear Houses . 

Total for South Lawrence 1828 
Totals for the City 



1709 


4 


565 


194 


671 


265 


10 





119 


3 


59 


M 


27 


16 








1828 


7 


624 


208 


698 


281 


10 





F 


14 


1795 


900 


2729 


1699 


242 


1 


R 


9 


326 


116 


175 


US 


5 1 






23 2121 I0l6 2904 1844 293 



SUMMARY OF TOTALS 

Front Houses .... 7380 
Rear Houses .... 822 



8202 



HUDDLE FEVER 

The increase in urban population, everywhere a matter of 
common knowledge, is especially noteworthy in the cities of 
Massachusetts. In 1875, only thirty-five years ago, 620 out of 
every 1000 persons were living in towns and cities of less than 
30,000: whereas the census for 1910 shows that now 620 out of 
every 1000 are living in cities of more than 30,000. 

Simultaneously the tendency to crowd people onto land at the 
center of a city is universally increasing. The never ending 
seesaw on each lot between new, high sale-price and increased 
amount of rent goes on steadily, though by jerks, like a cutter 
across bare ground. The increased amount of rent of course 
usually comes from a larger number of persons using the land. 

The forces impelling the congestion are exceedingly strong 
and with their results, seen everywhere in the hundreds of 
families crowded together in the beehives at the centers of the 
cities, make a condition that must increasingly come to be viewed 
as abnormal, unnatural, a social disease rightly to be called by 
some such term as huddle fever. 

In many cities in Massachusetts these forces have been placed 
under almost no legal restriction. In other cities the few restric- 
tions that have been established are pitifully inadequate. Disorder 
and chaos prevail. The progress toward wretched conditions is 
rapid and demands immediate restraint. Such measurements and 
equipment as will produce good living conditions for healthy and 
contented family life must be set up as legal standards, and it 
ought to be impossible for any builder to go below them. The 
need for public intervention is seen to be all the greater when we 
contrast the interest of builders with the interest of the public. 
Those who build houses in quantity receive their reward within 
a few months or years. Their interest is relatively momentary. 
Yet the living conditions which they create continue in use for 
50 to 80 years, and sometimes for more than a century. 



THE STUDY OF LAWRENCE BY 
A HOUSE CENSUS 

For an adequate study of the congestion 
in Lawrence, a special house census was made, 
and the figures secured are the basis for the 
following sketches. In the first one, the average 
number of apartments per acre is given for 
thirteen special sections of the city. In general 
these sections comprise the blocks which have 
the largest number of apartments in a particular 
locality. The second and third sketches make 
a study of density by half-blocks for the three 
sections nearest the center of the city, namely, 
those which appear in the first sketch with the 
averages 69, 60 and 49. 




THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF APARTMENTS PER ACRE 





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54 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 
The Investigation of Houses 




The two districts, A and B, are in a middle zone lying 
between the center and the outskirts, where several blocks are 
badly congested but most of the blocks are not. The central 
district, bounded by the broken line, contains the 300 acres that 
have been described. The six half-blocks, in solid black, represent 
the center and its future. In the point of crowding houses 
together, they are among the worst twelve in the city. They were 
chosen on that account. It should be noted how they are dis- 
tributed around the center. 




THE COMMON 
STREET 

Two Half-Blocks 

They contain the 
greatest congestion of 
population in wooden 
houses on any three 
acres in the state of 
Massachusetts. No three 
acres exceed these ex- 
cept at the infamous 
center of Boston where 
the houses are nearly 
all brick. 

In the rear houses, 
those at the right in 
this picture, the best 
light comes from an 
alley fourteen feet wide. 



LOOKING EAST INTO THE CENTER OF ONE HALF-BLOCK 




THE ALLEY SIDE OF THE HALF-BLOCK WEST OF NEWBURY STREET 

These two half-blocks located on the south side of Common Street east from 
Jackson Street contain 3.2 acres with one-half the surrounding street space 
included. An adequate idea of the narrow spaces, dark rooms and other 
conditions can be secured only by seeing them. But from the foregoing pictures 
it is possible to judge partially, especially if one imagines himself standing in 
among the houses. The open spaces shown in the first two pictures are those 
between front and rear houses at the center of the lots. The slits in the picture 
above is all the space there is at the sides of the houses. 



The houses are so close in these half-blocks that it is said 
to have been the practice of one agent to collect rents at the third 
and fourth stories by reaching out into the apartments on the same 



58 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

floors of the next house. Thus he saved himself trips above the 
second floor. One instance occurs where, by reaching out the 
kitchen window, four or five kitchen utensils are regularly hung 
on nails which have been driven in the side wall of the neighbor's 
house. As a matter of fact two or three houses occupy so fully 
the lots on which they stand that there is not room to place a 
garbage can on the same lot with the house. 

These buildings are exclusively used for dwelling with the 
exception that the majority of the front houses have stores on the 
first floor, and as indicated in the sketch which follows there is a 
small group of one-story stores and a small shop. Except two 
brick houses and one concrete house all the houses are of wood. 

The Amount of Land Occupied by Houses 
At the east end of Common street the overcrowding is 
duplex, — houses on land and persons in apartments. The latter 
form is described elsewhere. In the other four half-blocks the 
densities of population in 191 1 were due chiefly to the number of 
houses on the land, and these half-blocks represent more of the 
center blocks than do the two on Common street. 

In ascertaining in the six half-blocks examined what pro- 
portion of a lot is occupied by a house or houses, the computations 
that were made used the dimensions of the house at the second 
floor. Thus the areas of the houses do not include one-story 
buildings or extensions. A house that is not on a corner lot ought 
not to occupy as much as 70 per cent of its lot. The following 
are the facts as they exist in the interior lots of the six half-blocks 
examined. The amount of land occupied is : 

less than 70 per cent in 22 lots 

70 to 7S per cent " 7 " 

75 to 80 " " " 15 " 

80 to 90 " " " 10 " 

more than 90 per cent " 2 " 

Thirteen of the twenty-two where less than 70 per cent is 
occupied are on Oak and Oxford streets. In the four half-blocks 
on Valley and Common streets, among the thirty-seven interior 
lots only nine have less than 70 per cent. This is extreme 
congestion. 



Common St. 




Common >St. 




THE AMOUNT OF GROUND OCCUPIED BY HOUSES 

At the East End of Common Street 

In Two Half-blocks on the South Side of the Street 



OAK STREET 



OXFORD STREET 




H 



m 



1 



a 





MEL.VIN CT. 





The amount of ground occupied by houses in the Oak and Oxford street half-blocks. 
the former large new houses are steadily being built. Several of the blocks in Oxford Str> 
though west of the railroad, will soon be as congested as any locality in the central district. 



Actual 
Density 


Estimated 
Density 


556 

439 
3 2 7 


603 
462 
348- 


322 

287 
2 43 


342 

303 
266 



60 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The Density of Population in the Six Half-Blocks 
With the following figures concerning the number of persons 
living in the six half-blocks, there is a second column which gives 
an estimate of the probable density at times when there is regular 
employment, for in the spring of 191 1 the number of vacant tene- 
ments was unusually large. 

The number of persons per acre : 

1. Common Street S. side E. fr. Newbury 

2. Common Street S. side W. fr. Newbury 

3. Valley Street S. side E. fr. Franklin 

4. Valley Street S. side W. fr. Franklin 
' 5. Oak Street N. side W. fr. White 

6. Oxford Street W. side N. fr. Essex 

All Lawrence citizens who go to New York by rail pass in 
front of thirty blocks situated along Park Avenue from 125th Street 
Station to the entrance of the tunnel at 110th Street. Among the 
houses seen the five and six story predominate. They appear oppres- 
sively high and close together, and the streets are crowded. It 
would seem scarcely possible that any congestion in Lawrence would 
be comparable with the congestion in those blocks. Yet according 
to the 19 10 Census there are only three of those thirty blocks which 
have a density of population greater than 600, and only seven 
others greater than 462. 

Semi-Darkness 

The rooms which are lighted from other spaces than the 
side courts are described elsewhere. The following is the state- 
ment for the spaces at the side of the houses, and it has to do 
solely with rooms for which the chief source of light is a window 
with the location described. 

Window No. of rooms 
On the lot line 58 

Less than I foot from lot line 70 

1 to 2 feet from lot line 163 

2 to 2.7 feet from lot line 145 
2.7 to 4 feet from lot line 131 




o u 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 
SUMMARY OF RATES OF RENT PER ROOM PER WEEK 



Rates 


Common St. 


Valley 


St. 


Oak St. 


Oxford St. 


in 


No. of Per 


No. of 


Per 


No. of Per 


No. of Per 


Cents 


Apts. Cent 


Apts. 


Cent 


Apts. Cent 


Apts. Cent 


Less than 


40 2 .01 


5 


.036 


14 .152 


6 .10 


40-50 


5 - 02 5 


22 


•159 


19 .203 


7 -"7 


50 60 


3° - : 49 


35 


.616 


28 .304 


19 .316 


60-70 


40 .189 


2 3 


.167 


26 .283 


24 .4 


70-80 


46 . .228 


3 


.021 





1 .016 


So-90 


35 .174 







4 -043 





9095 


43 - 2I 4 







1 .01 1 


3 -05 



60 



On Common Street 61 per cent have rates greater than 70 cents. 
On the other streets 92 to 98 per cent have rates less than 70 cents. 



PERCENTAGE OF LOTS OCCUPIED BY THE HOUSE OR 
HOUSES ON INTERIOR LOTS IN SIX HALF BLOCKS 



Number of 
Lots 



Common St. (south side) 

East from Newbury (Ci iK) 
West " " (C12K) 

Valley St. (south side) 

East from Franklin (H16K) 
West " " (B17KJ 

Oak St. (North Side) 

West from White (B43L) 

Oxford St. (West Side) 

North from Essex (A52M) 



Less than Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 
70 per cent 70 to 75 75 to 80 80 to 90 90 to 100 



LIGHT 61 

Among the fifty-eight rooms lighted from a window on the lot 
line, thirty-live are in rear houses, and in such houses the best light 
in any room is from an alley. 

All of the facts about the open spaces show the variant, 
irrational and low standards which have prevailed. They spell 
a gloomy future for the working people in Lawrence ; for a proper 
amount of light is a prime requisite in any apartment that is 
worthy of the name home. But it is no mere prospect that is 
confronting them. The hardship of living in gloomy and dingy 
homes is already theirs; for one of the most noticeable results of 
house crowding in the center of Lawrence is the excessively large 
number of dimly lighted rooms. 

The typical light condition in these apartments may be 
described as follows. Eighty-three per cent of the apartments 
have either four or five rooms, and in most of them the kitchen, 
which is unusually large, is located in the center of the floor space. 
In the apartments of the front house, one or two rooms are well 
lighted from the street; the kitchen receives but little light; and 
the two rooms at the rear are almost as poorly lighted because 
of the lack of space between front and rear houses. This is 
just as true of the front rooms in the rear houses, because they 
have the same source of light. The kitchens in the rear houses 
are also entirely inadequately lighted. Many of the rooms which 
open upon the alley are not well lighted, although in others the 
amount of light is fair at present, because there is not yet a high 
building on the rear of the lots across the alley. 

The rooms which were examined in the matter of light are 
grouped below according to the location of the window which 
is the chief source of light for each room. 

Source of light Number of rooms 
Street 497 

Alley 386 

Yard 574 

Side court 720 

Outer court 85 

In giving to each room that was visited a grade according 
to the amount of light in it, a definite meaning was assigned to 



62 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

each grade and that method is the basis for the following summary. 
There are 342 rooms in which it is not possible to read except 
within a foot or two of the window. There are 561 other rooms 
where it is difficult to read on the side of the room opposite the 
window and where also protracted eye work in any part of the 
room is dangerous for the majority of persons. There is a 
satisfactory amount of light in only about fifty-nine per cent of 
the rooms. There are 31 apartments in which no room has a 
satisfactory amount of light. 

What these dim tenements mean to their occupants is partly 
shown by two casual comments made by women at work in 
kitchens. One woman looking up from the peculiar, double-ended 
wash tub which the Italians use remarked, " Don't know what I 
am doing. Can't see much." Another mother whose little child 
was walking around against her wish commented, " Windows no 
good. Baby won't stay here in the kitchen near the fire." 

It is doubtful whether architects and builders have sufficiently 
considered the financial disadvantage there is in dimly lighted 
tenements. There is a constant loss of income in the worst houses 
in Lawrence. In the two half-blocks at the east end of Common 
street, in a total number of thirty vacant apartments, twenty-two 
were located on the first and second floors where the light is the 
least. It is evident that, when tenements are not in great demand, 
the dimly lighted quarters on the lower floors are abandoned. 
Smaller tenements with better light would yield an equal or a 
larger income than do these dimly lighted houses. 

Nearly all factories now being constructed are given a great 
abundance of light, in the belief that any lack of light results in 
a reduction of the quality or quantity of the work in them. The 
same standard for the homes of the workers ought to be con- 
sidered commercially advantageous, — not to the builders, as such, 
but as a matter of general public policy. The efficiency of workers 
is constantly being reduced by the impaired vision and permanent 
injury to their eyesight that is one of the results of their living 
in darkened houses. 

The newspapers have at various times in the past urged that 
the industries of the city should be diversified, and that one of the 



LIGHT 63 

natural developments would be to secure the incoming of clothing 
factories. The products of the woolen and worsted mills are now 
transported to New York and Rochester, and there made into 
clothing. The question raised is, why the products of the woolen 
and worsted mills should not be used in Lawrence? If Lawrence 
were to have clothing factories, with the usual accompaniment of 
sweat shops in tenements, the present houses are so wretchedly 
lighted, that the resulting conditions would need another Dante 
to describe them properly. 

From Darkness to Death 

There are numerous kitchens and other rooms which have 
a most generous supply of glazed area in the windows, and yet 
artificial light is absolutely necessary, whenever any work is being 
done. In some of these rooms lamps are kept burning constantly. 
The majority of the rooms located at the centers of the buildings 
require artificial light when the sky is fully clouded. This means 
inconvenience, loss of time, and expense. It also means suffering 
and danger from disease. We need again and again to consider 
seriously the chain of the D's, in order to feel that they do lie 
bound together in a CHAIN: Darkness and dampness and dirt; 
dirt and discomfort and disease; death. The following is one of 
the memorandums made on an inspection card. " Mother coughs 
and looks tubercular; just back from hospital; there three months 
after child-birth. Kitchen dirty and black dark; lamp burning 
on stove at midday, March 4th. Same March 15th." This is a 
new house, less than three years old, and the kitchen has abundant 
window area. 

In the most recent report of the state inspectors of health of 
Massachusetts the comment is made concerning cases of tuber- 
culosis in two mill cities : " Many tenements were found from 
which cases of tuberculosis were frequently reported." Concern- 
ing a certain tenement quarter in another city the report says: 
" In looking over a list of deaths from tuberculosis, and the 
residence of the patients, it was discovered that a large number 
of persons were found to have died at the same street number, 
some of the same family name, showing by the dates that one had 



64 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

taken the disease from another. Many were found at the same 
number with different names, thus giving rise to the question 
whether the persons may have contracted the disease from the 
bacilli left in the house by former patients." Tuberculosis is 
already costing Lawrence dearly, and a toll of about 150 lives 
yearly. Thousands of dollars are being spent in Massachusetts 
for the cure of this dread disease. Wise business policy for a 
successful city, and the public's need for conditions that produce 
health, not that destroy it, demand that we place an awakened 
and intelligent valuation on these dimly lighted tenements. It 
ought no longer to be possible to build them. 

Windowless Rooms 

There were fifty-nine rooms examined which have no windows 
to the outside air. 

In the six half -blocks, there are four rooms which have no 
windows whatever, eight rooms with transoms only and 21 
other rooms which have no windows to the outside air, but inter- 
communicating windows to rooms or halls. Among these 33 
rooms, 25 were used as bed-rooms, four as kitchens, and four as 
store rooms. In the two districts, there were examined seven 
rooms without any windows whatever; and nineteen rooms with 
no window to the outside air, but small windows communicating 
to halls or rooms. Many of the interior windows are immovable. 

When windowless rooms are used as bed-rooms the kind of 
use they commonly receive may be illustrated by the description of 
one of them. In it there slept regularly a father, mother and a 
three year old girl in a three-quarter bed, and two boys in a crib. 
Two weeks previous to the visit an eight months old baby had 
died. The mother was still grieving over the loss, and with 
apparent unconsciousness of the inconsistency in her ideas, stated 
that the baby had always slept in the same room with the rest, 
that from birth he had been the strongest of her babies, and she 
wondered why he had died. 

If fifty-nine windowless rooms were seen in this examination, 
Lawrence must have a good many more than that. When the 
intelligent citizens have seriously considered how these rooms are 



SANITATION 65 

usually used and what culture bins they can become, pushing on 
through the years and piling up ill-health and death, suffering and 
expense to thousands, and great, expense to the city, they will not 
submit to the continuance of building regulations that permit the 
construction of such houses. 

Sanitary Equipment 

The following are the facts concerning the sanitary equip- 
ment and arrangements as found in the six half-blocks. There 
is in every apartment a sink and a supply of city water. In five 
or six apartments on upper floors tenants complained that they 
could not secure water when it was being drawn on the floor 
below, — due probably to pressure reduced within the house by old 
or small pipes. The general condition in this respect is one in 
which the city may well take much pride. The fact that all the 
houses are connected with sewers is good reason for further 
satisfaction. There are very many cities in the country that are 
not to be compared at all with the New England cities in these two 
particulars, water supply and sewers, and among the New England 
cities Lawrence is at the front. 

Judging by the six half-blocks, the bath-tubs and wash-tubs 
at the center of the city are few. In the Common, Valley and 
Oak Street half -blocks one apartment in nineteen has a bath-tub. 
In the Common Street half-blocks there are fourteen, nearly all 
at the west end; in Valley Street, nine, and in Oak Street, four. 
In the Oxford Street half-block one apartment in two has a tub; 
twenty-six of them being old pattern tin tubs encased. A con- 
siderable number of all the tubs have only one faucet, and a 
number of those that have two faucets and that are new are not 
connected with hot water, because the tenants say they cannot 
afford it. One apartment in fourteen has a wash-tub. They are 
distributed as the bath-tubs, except that the Oxford Street half- 
block has fourteen. 

All the houses have water closets inside the house ; and twelve 
out of thirteen of these closets are located within the apartment. 
All closets not located within the apartment are in public halls 
adjoining the apartment, there being no basement or cellar closets 



66 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

in these six half-blocks. Among 132 houses, there are only four 
where two families are using one closet. This is a remarkably 
good showing. There are probably few cities where the houses 
are better equipped in the number of water closets. 

It is much to be regretted that the amount of light in the 
water closets is not greater. Nine per cent of the closets are 
supplied with artificial light at night. Four per cent more have 
sash doors, which admit some secondary light at night. In eight 
per cent, there is practically no daylight whatever. In eighteen 
per cent more, it is not possible to see such obstacles as pails. In 
twenty per cent more, it is impossible to see whether the floor is 
clean or dirty. Altogether forty-six per cent have insufficient 
daylight. 

Many of the old closets are encased in wood, and the con- 
ditions behind the casings are not right. In a considerable number 
which were malodorous, the very apparent source was not 
accessible. 

The houses which have ash chutes number on the average 
one in four. 

Among 23 yards which are regularly used as passage-ways, 
eight are not paved. Among 34 side courts similarly used, there 
is no pavement in 11. 

Conditions Within the Apartments 

In grading occupied rooms according to the condition of 
cleanliness, it was noted that there are a smaller number of very 
clean apartments in Common Street than in the other half -blocks. 
So far as very dirty rooms are concerned, the six half -blocks do 
not differ from each other materially. The figures show that they 
all have relatively about the same number. About seven per cent 
of all apartments seriously needed much cleaning, and five other 
apartments were in wretchedly filthy condition. 

There is wide contrast in the facts that cause these dirty tene- 
ments. In some where there are several boarders and children, the 
women work hard and still are always in dirt. In others the women 
seem to let dirt accumulate in order to be able to clean it up at their 



SANITATION 



67 




This water-closet is so constantly wet that cement is used to keep the 
water from passing under the matched board partition across the kitchen 
floor. The floors and bases of most water-closets ought at least to be kept 
well painted. Many ought to have a floor of some other material than wood. 



special cleaning seasons. A few of the families are poor creatures, 
dependent and on the verge of degeneracy. 

The largest number of water closets with wet floors and the 
greatest amount of dirt on the floors occurs in the half-blocks at 
the east end of Common Street. Among 128 water closets where 
there was a considerable amount of water on the floor, 91 are 
located in those half-blocks. This is thirty-eight per cent of all the 
closets there. Many of them had old wet, rags and paper; some 
were so foul smelling as to be nauseating; and dogs were kept in 
two. In the other four half-blocks thirteen per cent were wet 
and dirty. 



Overcrowded Communal Apartments 

The great density of population in the two half -blocks at the 
east end of Common street is due to the over-crowding of apart- 
ments as well as to the crowding of houses upon the land. The 



68 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

prevailing arrangement of four bedrooms around the kitchen not 
only furnishes economy in fuel expense, because all bedrooms can 
be heated from the kitchen, but also makes easy the use of the 
apartment by several families. In these two half -blocks, in three 
of every five tenements, there were more than one family; in one 
tenement of every five, there were more than two families. Six 
apartments of five rooms each had fourteen persons each; and in 
one apartment of five rooms there were eighteen. Fifteen apart- 
ments had three or more families and also an average of three or 
more persons per room, excluding the kitchen. Seventy-three per 
cent of the population of these two half-blocks were living in 117 
apartments where the average number of persons per room exclud- 
ing the kitchen is more than two. This proportion in the other half- 
blocks is, in Valley street 40 per cent, in Oak street 37 per cent, in 
Oxford street o per cent. In 120 apartments where there were 
more than one family, there were 1,152 persons, 202 of them un- 
married boarders. The foregoing figures were taken at a season 
when the mills were running on part time. Nearly all of those who 
live in these two half-blocks are mill workers. 

The manner of living at the east end of Common street differs 
materially from that in the houses of the other half-blocks. Many 
of the bed-rooms are kept locked, the key being carried away by the 
occupants. The money paid to the family who rents the tenement 
is rent only and does not include board. Sunday and holiday meals 
are cooked and eaten separately. Usually the woman who rents 
the apartment cooks one meal a day for the others, but the food for 
this meal is furnished separately by the couples or families and is 
usually eaten separately. The other meals are purchased, prepared, 
and eaten separately. Such small stock of food as is carried from 
one meal to another is frequently kept in the bed-room. That the 
dirtiest water closets seen in Lawrence were in these apartments, 
is probably due to the fact that it is felt by all occupants, that the 
water closet is a community convenience and that no one person, 
not even the one who rents the tenement, is wholly responsible for 
its condition. 

It is said to be the practice with some landlords in these two 
half-blocks, when the work is plentiful and the tenements are 






MAINTENANCE 69 

crowded, to make the amount of rent collected depend upon the 
number of persons accommodated in the apartment. 

Among other serious disadvantages in these communal apart- 
ments, two may be mentioned: the absence of reasonable privacy, 
since all the bedrooms are heated from the kitchen, and the universal 
absence of bath-tubs. Such lack is bad enough in any apartment; 
but, where the tenement is used by three or four families and 
there is no heat in the bed-rooms, the confusion and inconveniences 
make bathing most difficult. 

One of the worst conditions that is found in large cities is the 
makeshift tenement which is made by cutting off space at the rear 
end of the store with dwarf partitions, curtains, etc. The combina- 
tion of dark rooms, no ventilation, food for sale, and frequently 
dirt and children, together with flies in season, makes a most deplor- 
able condition. Two such quarters were found in February at the 
east end of Common street. Each store, and, in one of them, two 
children, were in the care of a man who stated that he could not get 
work but his wife could. Lawrence would be in a wretched state, 
if the city officials could complacently allow such overcrowding. 
Evidently this is realized; for, less than two months later, these 
stores had been vacated and most of the partitions removed. It is 
to be hoped that, with a rejuvenated city government, other investi- 
gations will not be necessary to keep such . conditions permanently 
out of Lawrence. 

Defective Maintenance 

The conditions of cleanliness and repair in public halls were 
marked with gradations that had definite meaning. This scoring 
makes possible the following statement. Twenty-seven per cent 
of the houses had main halls a.nd stairs which were excessively 
dirty. Rubbish, ashes, garbage and litter were found in them, and 
in most of them black dirt gummed down indicated that the floor 
had not been washed for many months. The dirtiest of the halls 
and the largest number of them are in the houses at the east 
end of Common street. In several of these houses the landlords 
themselves are living, but into certain others the present landlord 
has perhaps never entered. Apparently there is almost no attempt 



70 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

to keep the halls clean. The re- 
sponsibility for their condition 
has not been placed 
upon any one. 
Paint is 




seriously 
needed in the 
main halls of 10 per 
cent of the houses, a con- 
siderable amount of plastering 
in 25 per cent, and whitewashing 
in 66 per cent. 

Scoring for the walls of rooms, made conservatively, shows 
that the walls in 13 per cent of the rooms are in need of repair. 
The largest proportion of such rooms are in a Valley street half- 
block and the smallest proportion in the Oxford street. 

The cellar floors were wet in thirteen houses. The roofs 
were in bad repair in five. More than half the pitch roofs and 
a few of the flat roofs have seriously broken eaves and leaders, or 
none. This is the more serious, because of the lack of pavement 
in the yards and side courts and because so many of these spaces 
are used as passageways. Some of the courts and yards have 
pavement in bad repair. At the time of steady rain many pave- 
ments hold puddles to be crossed, or are so graded that they throw 
small brooks across the street walks for pedestrians to wade 
through; for almost none are sewer connected. 

Two defects in water closet plumbing were the most 
common. There is frequently a leak at the bottom of the flush- 
box where the flush-pipe joins it. This usually results in a steady 
dribble of water down the outside of the flush-pipe onto the floor. 
The galvanized two-inch pipe that ventilates the water closet bowl 
is rusted out in many closets at the point where it joins the bowl. 




This is the 
passageway to 
the street from 
eight apart- 
ments in one 
rear house and 
three in an- 
other- Pave- 
ment is dished 
v-nd. not con- 
nected with the 
sewer. It is im- 
possible to use 
without wetting 
the feet, — as 
the mother and 
child are doing. 




The steps are front entrance of the eight-family rear house. At its corner 
in the upper picture a boy is standing. 



72 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




In some bowls this gives at times a quantity of water as overflow 
out of the bowl. In several closets this pipe is completely dis- 
located and the value of the vent destroyed. 

In a total number of 70 lots, the surfaces of 56 had a 
considerable amount of ashes, rubbish and garbage, and 16 had an 
excessively large amount. There was an entire lack of receptacles 
in some yards. In others where the supply is adequate, the 
receptacles are either not used or are used very carelessly. The 
photographs tell the story better than figures or words; though 
even they do not tell the whole story, as any one knows who has 
tried to get a photograph of rubbish that appears as bad as the 
condition. Only a few ash chutes were noted as clogged or in 
very bad repair; though a considerable number were seen which 
were not emptying squarely into the receptacle under them, or 
had no receptacle. 



MAINTENANCE 73 

To give a better knowledge of the conditions than figures 
can give, by a cursory review of the inspection cards, the following 
hit-or-miss transcript was made from the notes on the back of 
some of the cards. Nothing can give the impression that would 
be made by a visit to the premises. 

— Bottom of air shaft loaded with rags, papers, cans and 
swill. Cellar entrance loaded with rubbish. 

« — Odors from cellars and garbage cans are very strong at 
the rear of these rooms; two bedrooms. 

— Cellar compartments loaded with rubbish, old rags, 
mattress, excelsior, cans, two spots of human filth, dead cat. 
Under stairs about a barrel of excelsior. 

— Sink: side gone, door off, trap leaks; has been repaired 
with putty and rag. In bad condition for a year. " Owner tried 
to fix it about three weeks ago but he has not been to it since. 
I've told him about the casing many times." 

— Water warped floor boards at sink make trip for feet; 
broken drain board; waste pipe at trap wrapped with grease- 
soaked rag. 

— Two holes in bottom of sink stopped by rags. 

— Waste pipe tied with large rag. "Leaked before, not now." 
In water closet leak from above through ceiling. Tenant says 
condition is chronic, and that the water drops on the seat. Dis- 
colored spot, wet, confirms the statement. 

— All paint at sink and cupboard scrubbed off. Tenant here 
six years. No painting in that time. 

— Tenant here ten years. Two rooms white-washed in that 
time. 

— Here eight years. Front room done over two years ago, 
paper not paint. 

— Both front and rear halls in very dirty condition. Two 
tenants say they have not been done over in ten years. Good- 
sized holes in plaster in rear hall and places lacking paper in front. 

— Water closet floor badly wet with dirty water as from soil- 
pipe. Tenant says the leak has been here five months. Source 
not discernible. Hole in kitchen ceiling over stove, about four 
feet by two feet. This tenant lived five years at the west end 
of the building. No painting there in that time. 

— Two holes in second floor hall patched by nailing pieces 
of boxes onto them. 

— Here thirteen years. "He clean one time." 

— Sink doors in all these apartments (3) off hinges. 

— Entrance sash door (front) permanently boarded: stairs 
with winders made very dark. 



74 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

— Here more than twenty years. " Painted kitchen once. 
So long back I can't remember. More than fifteen years." In 
apartment on same floor: here eleven years. " Front room and 
kitchen done two years after we came. No painting." Three 
owners in twenty years. Present landlord has owned the house 
seven years. 

— Hole in entrance hall at threshold of front door. 

— Door from hall into tenement (only entrance), upper hinge 
severed. " Told the agent three weeks ago." 

— Floors in hall very thin and full of humps. Stairs same. 
Nosing on four treads all gone. 

— Nosing gone on winder (triangular tread). Girl fell on the 
stair last week. 

— Leak at sink strainer follows waste pipe to water closet 
floor around the bowl which is encased. Floor inside case soaked 
and with filth: not accessible. Water follows soil-pipe into cellar 
and keeps a section of soft ground wet. Sink waste pipe is not 
trapped, goes into cellar, thence into soil-pipe direct. Vent pipe 
from water closet trap is open into the compartment, due to the 
fact that a sink formerly on the opposite side of the partition 
was served by the same vent pipe, and when removed the tee was 
not closed. 

A house owned by an elderly woman who is a life-tenant only, 
was in particularly bad repair. The following are the facts about 
the first floor tenement at the rear. The ash chute from the two 
floors above emptied directly, without box, onto the porch floor 
which is the only approach to the apartment. No barrels have 
been provided for several months, and the occupant of the tenement 
was forced to keep the ashes and garbage swept into a pile under 
the ash chute to avoid the necessity of climbing over them. In 
the room which was used as a sitting-room, the paper on the 
ceiling hung down in long strips. It had been in this condition 
for three weeks. The tenant stated that he had been there five 
years, and that no repairs had taken place during that time, 
although he had asked for them. He had hesitated to move 
because with eight children he had found it difficult to find a 
tenement. In a bedroom off the kitchen such dim light as could 
have entered the room was entirely shut out by a blind. When 
the tenant was asked why the blind was kept closed, he pointed 
to the fact that a pane of glass was gone, with the statement, 
"The landlord s.aid if we wanted it fixed, we would have to do it 
ourselves. But I'm not going to. It is not right. It fell out for 
lack of putty. None of us did anything to it." 

The supply of water in nine water closets was cut off by 
frozen pipes. Most of these were in house? owned by one man, 
and all the tenants in those apartments claimed that the condition 



MAINTENANCE 



75 




The boys are in the front and only entrance to a six-family 
rear house. The brace in the upper left corner is at the steps of 
the front entrance of a three-family rear house. 



was usual in cold weather. In three hall closets in two houses, 
lanterns were kept constantly burning to keep the closets from 
freezing. In another house where there are six hall closets, the 
water was turned off in the cellar, and a tenant who had been there 
several years stated that in very cold weather the landlord habitu- 
ally kept the water turned off except during the hours six to nine 
in the evening, with the idea that so many were out of the house 
during the day. Mothers and children were found in three apart- 
ments, and at the noon hour several others were seen. The house 
was visited three times in two weeks and at these times the odor 
from unflushed closets was sickening. 

About ten apartments on Common street were found vacant 
and unlocked. The public had free access at all times. The closets 
had been used many times and could not be flushed. Many of the 
floors had been used in place of the water closet. Six other similar 
apartments were noted in one of the half -blocks on the opposite side 
of the street. There three halls were also in the same filthy condi- 



76 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

tion. During the summer the windows of these apartments were 
open, and the odor from them was obnoxious. Flies abounded, 
and the open doors and windows of grocery and meat stores are 
close at hand. Apparently these conditions are constantly to be 
found in these particular houses, for they existed through the 
spring and summer. 

Almost no halls are lighted at night in the Common and Valley 
street half-blocks. Most of the houses in these blocks are not pro- 
vided with gas in the public halls. In some where the house is piped 
for gas, there are no fixtures in the halls, and in others where the 
fixtures exist, either there is no supply of gas or no regular arrange- 
ment for lighting it. An examination of the halls in the two blocks 
at the east end of Common street made between eight and nine 
o'clock on three different nights, two of them Saturday, found less 
than ten halls with lights in them. Similar examination in two 
blocks on Valley street disclosed only four halls which were lighted. 
One yard in the Common street half-blocks and four yards in 
the Valley street are the only instances where the space between 
front and rear buildings was found lighted at night. 

The Common Need for Better Homes 

A chief of a fire department recently described the manner of 
gathering certain figures as a " triangular dispensation." The 
phrase well summarizes our city life in the tenement districts. We 
are under a triangular dispensation, the neglect, ignorance and low 
ideals of the owners, tenants and the city officials. It is waste of 
time to debate with anyone which of the three groups has been 
chiefly at fault in the past. But it is quite worth while to consider 
methods for meeting in the future the need for better homes. 

The idea which many have that the owner of a house is the 
one who should be considered responsible is natural, justifiable, and 
necessary. The clearing of the walks promptly in winter is a 
typical responsibility. It can be borne by no one so well as by the 
owner. No one else has control of the spaces which are used in 
common in and around the houses. The halls and stairways should 
be always clean, in good repair and well lighted; the open spaces 
clean, well-drained and, if used as a passageway, lighted at night. 



MAINTENANCE 77 

This means for the owner constant expense in money and time, and 
much anxiety. It can seem an unreasonable burden only to those 
who have been regarding their ownership as purely a matter of 
investment, who regard rent as identical with interest. Monthly, 
weekly and almost daily expenditures for maintenance, — cleaning, 
lighting, repairing and watch-care, — will come to be common prac- 
tice; for the care of the public places such as hallways, yards and 
walks is inherently part of the business of owning a tenement house. 
There are in Lawrence a considerable number of landlords who 
seem to regard the ownership of these houses as they would regard 
the conduct of a store. They give their time and attention to the 
details involved in the business. In these rapidly growing cities 
the idea will prevail with increasing speed, that it is not good public 
policy to allow tenement house owners to ignore their manifest duty 
in this particular, or to pass the responsibility to the tenants, or to 
say that the habits of the tenants are beyond the owner's ability to 
control. A janitor is needed in the largest houses and a caretaker 
in the smaller ones. In every house there ought to be a definite 
financial arrangement with a tenant or another person for the 
lighting of the halls and the care of all the public places. Whatever 
arrangement a landlord may make, his responsibility for the success- 
ful working of the arrangement seems unavoidably part of the 
business and, in the event of its failure, there ought to be a recog- 
nized right with any family to ask the city for the safety of light, 
and for protection against the dirt of other families. This protec- 
tion will seldom be sought from the health department directly, 
because the families fear that the landlord will know who made 
the complaint. 

That fact adds greatly to the need which is everywhere recog- 
nized, that tenement houses should have systematic inspection regu- 
larly within stated periods. For this purpose, though there were 
five sanitary inspectors in the employ of the city for most of the 
year 191 1, Lawrence has not had the right kind of inspection. The 
right inspection would assist owners very materially, and they need 
such assistance. Additional to a caretaker the presence of a good 
inspector in a tenement house, recurring periodically whether 



78 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

needed or not, is all that is necessary to better the conditions in 
hundreds of houses. Many owners do not need written orders and 
many tenants do not need reprimands to be stirred to remedy the 
conditions of neglect and carelessness. The right inspection should 
of course include conditions inside apartments. For this purpose 
and for other reasons, the right kind of a woman can secure the 
best results. Women have done some of the best work in sanitary 
inspection. They accomplish most in the education of the tenants, 
and that is important, for one of the chief objects ought to be 
persistant instruction in sanitary matters. This is needed by many 
tenants. The health department should deal officially and legally 
with owners, but its inspectors meet the tenants incessantly and the 
opportunity for effective service is constant. 

Our public school curriculum cannot be loaded with cures for 
every social ailment, but certainly the instruction of the young 
concerning how to live in the over-crowded houses of the tenement 
districts ought to be serious and efficient. Two or three text books 
now in use in some schools are helping but they are not compre- 
hensive in their topics and in most of their suggestions are alto- 
gether too meager. The right books and the right instruction 
would achieve direct and broad results. The education of the 
tenants is so much a social need that the community as a whole 
should be co-operating with the tenement house owners through 
the schools and the right kind of sanitary inspection. 

The Improvement of Existing Buildings 

If old buildings are kept in good repair, that is not all that the 
city might well be requiring; for there are improvements which 
can be made in existing buildings at a cost that is immaterial in 
relation to the benefit secured. 

For ntany years it has been common practice in the large 
cities to paint or whitewash the side walls of buildings. In New 
York the law has required for ten years that the walls of courts 
shall be either of light colored brick or made white with paint or 
whitewash. Lawrence should be securing white side walls on many 
of the houses in the crowded blocks; for in this manner the dimly 




* ft* 

o 



en 



T3 X?^ 
H-i O 3 



j .t! a 



80 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

lighted tenements would be very materially improved. This is 
the more desirable because there are so many dimly lighted rooms, 
and the improvement that could be secured is out of all proportion 
to the cost involved. 

There are possible other low cost changes of various kinds 
in a good many houses. Better light can be secured in halls that 
are now dark, — by glass substituted for wooden panel in entrance 
doors, by windows in outside walls, or by the construction of a 
skylight. The light in water closets in some houses could be 
greatly improved. In some of the older houses there are windows 
only a few inches in either dimension. Also in some houses win- 
dows have been constructed through a partition into a room, in 
spite of the fact that the water closet is against an outside wall in 
which the window could have been placed. There are water closets 
with doors coming from public halls which could have had doors 
from each apartment and each then would have been within the 
apartment. Whatever question there may be about the city's 
ordering some improvements, there is no question about the de- 
sirability of removing the wooden cases around the water closets 
in many of the existing houses. This would be apparent to anyone 
from a most cursory examination of the conditions which are now 
to be found around many of these encased fixtures. The require- 
ment that the floors of many closets be kept heavily painted would 
not be unreasonable and would be decidedly beneficial. Where the 
lower end of the galvanized local vent pipe has rusted out, a section 
ought to be replaced by another kind of metal ; — that which several 
cities are now requiring. 

There are buildings that ought to have fire escapes ordered 
onto them immediately. The need for this is shown later in the 
paragraphs concerning no second egress. 

If the board of health were to adopt the policy of bringing 
into court regularly each quarter, or even each half-year, one good 
case of overcrowding, and give it much publicity, the living con- 
ditions in some of the tenements would be constantly maintained 
on a much better level than they are now. 



BUILDING REGULATIONS 81 

The Best Water Closet Standards in Massachusetts 

If there were anywhere to be found a study of the history of 
water closet requirements as they have been adopted at various 
times in all the cities of this country, such study would probably 
show that Lawrence stands among the first in this particular. In 
fact it would not be surprising, if it were found that only two or 
three cities antedate this one in establishing equally high standards. 
Since 1894, Lawrence has been requiring by the regulations of the 
board of health, enforced by a plumbing inspector, that there shall 
be in every house one water closet for each family, and that it 
shall have a window of three square feet area. These two standards 
have not only been secured in new houses, but repairs in old houses 
have been accompanied by the installation of water closets within 
the house, and usually in the number required in new houses. That 
it might be possible to compare Lawrence with the other cities 
of Massachusetts, the plumbing codes and regulations of all cities 
with a population of more than 20,000 were studied. Only one 
other city could be found that has yet established these two 
standards which Lawrence has been requiring for seventeen years. 

Whatever may be the results which are being secured without 
legislation in the other cities, these two requirements are far too 
important to be left to chance. Lawrence has added to them the 
specifications that each closet shall be "in a separate compartment 
separated from all other rooms by partitions from floor to ceiling," 
that windows onto air shafts shall be five square feet in area; and 
the " area of the shaft shall be equal to the combined area of the 
windows opening onto it." Eleven cities in Massachusetts have 
no requirement concerning the number of water closets that shall 
be placed in a house, and a twelfth specifies one for every twelve 
persons. Concerning windows : three cities permit them to open on 
a shaft of 3 sq. ft. ; three others permit flues of six or eight inches; 
seven accept in place of a window that two inch pipe from the 
water closet bowl which is known as the local vent; two stipulate 
that the ventilation shall be " adequate " : and six have no require- 
ment. Thus among 27 cities, 21 have entirely inadequate specifi- 
cations for windows. The citizens of Lawrence may well take 



82 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

just pride in the record of the city in these particulars. But that 
record does not mean that there are no water closet conditions that 
need remedying. 

History of Building Ordinances 

In the 1908 report of the fire underwriters, it is said that a 
comprehensive fire limits district which had previously been es- 
tablished was abolished in 1880. On June 4, 1900, a small fire 
district, lying along both sides of Essex street, was established and 
has remained unchanged. This district is less than 280 feet wide, 
with Essex street's 80 feet in the middle of it. It does not even 
include the east end of this main business street, and by 1908 the 
city officials had forgotten that it existed. 

In 1 90 1 an attempt was made to secure a building code. The 
interest began in February and lasted, so far as any record could 
be found, till the first week in May. 

In the draft first proposed, fire limits were to be established 
from the river to Haverhill street, from Union street to the 
Railroad. Within the district no wooden building exceeding one 
story was to be erected. Section 13 aimed a body-blow, though 
a very clumsy one, at the use of wood outside of the fire limits: 
" No tenement house shall be erected within three feet of the side 
or rear line of the lot, but, whenever two or more houses to be 
used for tenement purposes are hereafter built nearer 'together 
than twenty feet, the walls shall be brick at least twelve inches 
thick above the foundation walls to the roof." Another section 
required any tenement or lodging house " with a frontage of more 
than thirty feet " to have a middle fire wall from cellar to three 
feet above the roof. 

Early in April, the matter was referred to a committee con- 
sisting of two aldermen, the city engineer, superintendent of 
public property, four contractors and two insurance men. Their 
draft re'duced the fire limits to include only Common street, 
additional to the limits then existing. Sec. 13 was made to read 
" No wall or part of a wall shall be erected within three feet of 
the line of an adjoining lot or within six feet of the wall of another 
building, unless said wall or part of a wall is brick filled as 
specified in Sec. 7." Sec. 7 provided that tenement houses having 
two families on a floor should have a separating brick-filled wall 
four inches thick. The same kind of wall was required for all 
partitions inclosing stairways and light shafts. 



BUILDING REGULATIONS 83 

The ordinance appears to have been smothered some time in 
May. 

March 19th, 1906, the main portion of the roof of the 
Majestic Rink collapsed, because of a heavy fall of snow. A sec- 
tion of about 100 feet by 50 fell to the skating surface. The fol- 
lowing day the Telegram said : " A significant warning, — some- 
thing certainly ought to be done to enforce safe and sane building 
laws in this city. The collapse of the roof of the Majestic Rink is 
a case to the point. No new building like this one, properly con- 
structed, would collapse under last night's snow fall. Just think 
of what might have happened had the accident occurred a few 
hours earlier, while a polo game was in progress. If this narrow 
escape from a terrible tragedy means anything, it means the city 
government will be remiss in its duty, if it does not at once pass 
wise building ordinances and appoint proper officials to see that 
they are carried out." 

The agitation thus renewed secured the reconsideration of the 
formerly proposed regulations and of one or two other similar 
bills. The code finally adopted April 23, 1906, was based upon 
the proposed code of 1901 emasculated. 

It strengthened Sec. 13 by substituting a twelve-inch brick wall 
in place of a brick-filled wall. It made the distance between front 
and rear buildings eight feet instead of six feet and irrespective 
of the character of the walls. It added the requirement of a bond 
from the inspector and the keeping of records and a paragraph 
giving right to enter. It incorporated the establishment of the 
office of inspector, the issuance of permits, and some paragraphs 
giving him much discretionary power over unsafe buildings. It 
also included verbatim three or four small paragraphs, relatively 
unimportant, and two important paragraphs weakened. 

The amount of penalty possible was greatly reduced; the fire 
limits were omitted; Sec. 7, as summarized above, was dropped; 
and about thirteen paragraphs of conservative specifications for 
structural safety were ignored. 

The building inspector qualified for his duties May 28, 1906. 
The building ordinance as adopted is now in force, except that 
minor amendments have since been made in two sections. The 
inspector's annual reports have repeatedly asked for a better 
ordinance. 



84 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The Character of The Building Ordinance 

Concerning this, the report of the fire underwriters said: 
" The municipal building laws are practically valueless." The basis 
for this opinion may be seen by considering the ordinance in detail. 
That can be done briefly. Several of the sections have been suffi- 
ciently described above. There are three about metal leaders, 
chimneys and projections into streets. 

For the purpose of fire protection, there are three requirements : 

First. " No tenement house shall be erected within 
three feet of the side line of a lot, unless the walls be 
brick " etc. 

The ordinance does not define tenement house, and any 
building inspector could legally allow three-family wooden 
houses to be built on the lot line. This would be in keeping with 
the legal definition of tenement house in Boston, Springfield and 
a few other places. Fortunately Lawrence had for five years a 
building inspector who had sufficient interest in the city's welfare 
to define tenement house to include any house with more than one 
family. A second grave fault in the section is the fact that ten- 
ement houses are mentioned at all. Wooden boarding houses and 
other buildings are not mentioned and have been, and are being, 
erected on side lot lines. 

Second. " Whenever two buildings shall be erected 
on the same lot of land, one in the rear of the other, the 
outside walls shall be at least eight feet apart." > 

Separate rear houses on lots of ordinary depths ought not to be 
allowed. If allowed, the distance of eight feet is altogether too 
small. Small as it is, the phrasing " outside walls " permits all 
sorts of encroachments on it. In very many instances porches, 
stairs, balconies and other encroachments have been constructed 
in this space, frequently filling it entirely. 

Third. " All buildings hereafter erected two stories 
above the level of the street shall be provided with two 
separate stairways, placed in such manner that the inmates 
shall have easy means of egress at all times, said stair- 
ways to lead from each story." 



BUILDING REGULATIONS 85 

It would seem to be the purpose of this section that all inmates 
shall have two means of egress, but the phrasing does not 
explicitly say this, nor does it say that the two ways out shall 
be independent of each other. Without doubt each apartment 
should have direct access to two independent and safe stairways 
or fire escapes. The section is from the 1901 proposed code 
verbatim with two exceptions. That code read " occupants " 
instead of " inmates," and its final clause read " each tenement 
to have access to both stairways " instead of " said stairways to 
lead from each story." The section as enacted appears to say 
what it does not say. There are new buildings in Lawrence where 
one or more third or fourth-floor apartments have no second 
egress. This is radically wrong, yet is possible, because the 
explicit language of the 1901 draft was dropped. 

For ordering additional egress in old buildings, certain 
sections seem to give the inspector abundant power, but leave the 
question entirely to his judgment. Such a condition as no second 
egress from third and fourth floor apartments is too important 
to be left to the discretion of any individual. 

The foregoing three sections have some value. A fourth 
has none. Wooden tenement or lodging houses are limited to the 
height of 48 feet. In this height five stories can be erected; what 
more would be desired? So far the builders have not desired 
to build wooden five-story houses, and only four or five four- 
story and basement houses. The 1901 draft limited wooden 
tenement and lodging houses to four stories. 

For the purpose of structural safety there are three para- 
graphs; one against weakening timbers by cutting them for pipes; 
a second which limits the distance between studs to sixteen inches ; 
and a third which gives two dimensions for certain timbers. Both 
these specifications are limited to buildings of " over two and less 
than four stories." The phrasing is ridiculous, for it includes 
only three-story buildings. Since the passage of the ordinance 
almost one hundred four-story, frame houses have been built; 
and there is not a word in the code concerning the strength of such 
buildings. Relate these ridiculous, structural provisions to the 



86 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

new rink that fell and the public's demand for protection, and 
we have a tale of comedy fit for the best of court jesters. 

The foregoing summary states all there is to the building 
ordinance of Lawrence and it has been in existence five years, — 
three years since the National Board of Fire Underwriters in 
formal report termed it valueless. It is not surprising that the 
building inspector said in his last annual report : 

" Each year, I have recommended that the City Council 
take up the matter of revising the Building Ordinances. That 
suggestion is not out of place at this time. Last year and 
the year previous, I recommended that the Building Ordin- 
ances be revised along the lines laid down by the National 
Board of Fire Underwriters. This year I make the same 
suggestion. Under the present ordinance, there is no pro- 
vision for foundations, thickness of brick walls, size of floor 
timbers or columns, floor loads, lighting or ventilation of 
buildings, protection against fire, or any of the important 
matters which a building ordinance should restrict. Of course, 
in a general way, some provision has been made in the 
ordinance to cover some of the matters above mentioned. The 
law should be specific and accurate, in order to be effective." 

It should be noted that the building code has nothing in it 
that meets the conditions of defective maintenance and the need 
for renovation that has been shown in the preceding pages. The 
care and improvement of old houses is a need that is found in 
every city and should of course be provided for in legal require- 
ments. Serious as this need is, it is small in comparison with the 
need for controlling the construction of new houses. Prevention 
not cure should have first consideration. Any city of any size 
has this need. In view of the entire lack of control of new houses 
that exists in Lawrence, it is necessary to study in detail the 
extent to which this control is needed. Because of the congestion 
the character of the new houses is of supreme importance. 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 



33,700 Persons on 300 Acres 

This is the population in the central district elsewhere 
described. There are probably very few cities in the country 
where the populuation is less than 100,000 and there is so large 
an area as 300 acres with an average density of 112 to the acre. 
The density, if the 17 acres in the Common is excluded, is 119 
per acre. There is one section of 14.9 acres where the density is 
216 and another of 17.3 acres where the density is 214. The 
densities in six half -blocks, as previously stated on page 60, 
range between 243 and 556. 

The area of the city is small in relation to most of the cities 
in Massachusetts. But the smallness of the total area is not the 
reason for the congestion in Lawrence, if it can be stated, as it 
can be, that more than one-third of the population is living on one- 
thirteenth of the city's area. 

In the central district there are about thirty half-blocks 
where the majority of the lots are so built upon at present that 
further additions of houses will be in the nature of filling in the 
light and air chinks; with the result that such additions will make 
city blocks which are solidly built upon, except the narrow slits 
of space between houses. There are numerous other half-blocks 
which contain many vacant lots and also houses which are crowded 
together. Into two-thirds of the central half-blocks, large houses 
are steadily being inserted. The congestion is increasing rapidly. 

The Large Number of Rear Houses 

The houses that are moved back on lots are usually small 
houses; but the new houses that are being built at the rear are 
large houses. Seventy such, built in the last four and one-half 
years, contain 255 apartments. There are in the central 300 
acres, 360; in a district bounded by the rivers, Park, May and 
Margin streets, 500; in North Lawrence 703; in all Lawrence 822. 

There is a striking contrast between the insurance map of 
Lawrence and the maps of other New England cities in the 
number and size of rear houses. The maps of all the important 



88 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




An alley corps of " old settlers," most of them still in use but marking time 
waiting to be displaced by houses like those in the following picture. 



cities were examined. In those for Manchester, Lowell, Salem, 
Fall River and New Bedford, certain streets have front houses 
as close together and in some blocks as large as the front houses 
in Lawrence, but the rear houses are not as numerous and not 
as large. Cambridge and Manchester have some badly crowded 
blocks, but the houses are smaller. Lowell and Salem have 
sections of blocks, groups of four to eight houses, which equal 
the worst congestion in Lawrence, but the pages in their maps 
do not display the conditions on the Lawrence map. The center 
in Lawrence has the largest number of large frame houses and 
the largest number of rear houses. With Boston's brick center 
excepted, the map of the Lawrence center is the worst in New 
England. 




Rear houses in the next alley to that shown in the preceding picture ; one 
block nearer to the center of the city. 



90 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Some of the Recent Houses 

Lawrence ought to be examining with great care every 
house which is proposed to be introduced into the already over- 
crowded center. Some of the houses now being built would have 
to be considered badly lighted houses, if they were on a prairie. 
There are kitchen and water closet windows that open onto deep 
porches and the windows give entirely insufficient light. Builders 
are constructing dimly lighted and even windowless sink rooms, 
which also frequently serve as pantries. These are the work- 
rooms for the women. It is not difficult to guess accurately how 
many carpenters would build for themselves bench-rooms that 
have neither light nor ventilation; but they build them for the 
women. 

In the two districts, there were found fifty-seven living- 
rooms where the source of light and air is from ten light-wells. 
Their areas and the number of living-rooms opening from them 
are as follows : 

Area of Living 

In 
Two shafts 
Three " 
Five " 

Six of these shafts serve, besides 34 living-rooms, 30 sink-rooms 
and 32 water closets or bath-rooms including water closets. Most 
of these shafts occur in buildings that are relatively not old 
buildings. The practice with architects in trying to secure light 
in this manner is current. The spaces on the plans are usually 
marked, " Light well — skylight over." All the shafts seen are 
covered with skylights and there are ventilators in most of them. 
In some of them at the bottom there is an opening to the cellar 
but in no case a fresh-air duct. The ventilation is quite inade- 
quate. To the upper floors the bad air and noise of the lower 
floors are furnished. The shafts are enlarged speaking tubes ; a 
quarrel or a child being whipped, a sick baby or a person who 
snores, — any of these in one family disturbs all other families. 
Onions for dinner in a lower apartment means onions for dinner 
in all apartments. The situation is ludicrous, — except for those 
who live in it. In the hot weather the bedrooms that open on 



Each Shaft 


Room 


20 sq. ft. 


11 


25 to 27 sq. ft. 
32 to 36 " " 


18 

28 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 



9i 



these shafts are a burden to the strong as well as to the babies 
and the sick. The light for the rooms on the top floor is fair at 
all times. On the next to the top floor a fair amount of light is 
secured only on bright days. For the rooms that are three and 
four floors below the roof there is inadequate light at all times. 
Such construction as this is not necessary. 




The photograph was taken looking from a dark kitchen 
through a half -open window into an inner court between two 
buildings. It serves six kitchens and at the third and fourth floors 
contains porches four feet wide. Such space in Brooklyn and 
Connecticut would have to be about twice as large and could not 
have any encroachments. This inner court is materially better 
than the spaces that exist in some buildings, yet it is entirely 
inadequate for the lighting of the center floor spaces of the house. 



Q2 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




The left part of the sketch above is the outline of one of two 
recently built houses which are almost identical. The picture on 
the opposite page shows the interrupted wall as above. Both 
this house and its mate appear on their street sides to be 
among the best of the large tenement houses, and are good in 
many respects. But in the point of lack of light in the centers 
of the buildings, they are among- the worst houses in Lawrence. 
The two narrow slits shown in the sketch are only three feet 
wide and their inner ends are twenty-seven feet from the rear 
wall of the building. For the purpose which these slits serve, 
other cities have for several years been securing by law courts 
nine and ten feet wide and in addition a yard of five feet depth 
at the rear of the building. Behind one of these buildings is a 
very small yard space; the other has no yard. 

The front halls have windows into these narrow courts, 
but are so dark that one has to feel his way at the second and 
third floors. The open spaces are not even wide enough to give 
room for a window of adequate size to light the bedrooms that 
are located at the ends. At the rear end of the two courts, the 
sketch represents, by broken cross lines, space that is occupied by 
porches at each floor. Kitchen and rear hall windows open onto 
the porches and at the second and third floors receive almost no 
light. On cloudy days artificial light is necessary in the halls, 
kitchens, sink-rooms and bath-rooms. Such obstructions as these 
ought not to be allowed. The buildings will have even less light 
in them, when the owners of the adjoining lots have built as near 
the lot line and as high as these buildings stand. 




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94 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




ROOM WITHOUT LIGHT OR VENTILATION 



A four-story frame house. " Not more than two such houses built each 
year." — Building Inspector. Such rooms are unnecessary, and permission to 
construct them is not good public policy. Built summer of 191 1. 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 



95 




BADLY LIGHTED DOUBLE HOUSE 



Looking between two rear houses to the rear of the front house. The court 
between wings, obstructed by stairs, serves six bed-rooms and six alcove rooms 
and is only four feet wide. From eight to ten feet are being required for such 
spaces in some cities, and the obstructions would be illegal. Built summer of 191 1. 



96 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



The foregoing picture shows a form of house which is already 
very common and will probably increase in number rapidly. It is 
the double house with two wings at the rear, separated by an outer- 
court, making a floor plan with an outline that suggests a magnet. 
In many houses in Lawrence these courts are not wide enough to 
properly light the centers of the buildings and in numerous 
instances are obtructed by porches and balconies. In some houses 
the courts are almost entirely filled by such obstructions. The 
obstruction ought not to be allowed and a court of adequate width 
should be required. Cities with populations of more than a million 
are requiring that such spaces shall be eight feet wide and the 
standards in some cities are nine and ten feet. Surely Lawrence 
ought to be able to leave more open space around a building than 
is being left in cities with a population of a million. 

Some of the new houses would not be bad houses in open 
fields but are thoroughly bad for the center of Lawrence, because 
of their relation to other houses. On the adjoining page is a 
picture of a building which is practically the same as that form 
of house known in New York notoriously as the " dumb-bell " 
house, so called because the outline of the buildings has somewhat 
the shape of a dumb-bell, as may be seen in the sketch below which 
shows the ground plan of a series of these bad buildings as they 
exist in New York. Each of the narrow slits seen between the • 
houses is the only source of light and air for about forty-eight 
rooms. It has been impossible to construct them since the law 
of 1901. 





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98 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The owner of the " ten footer " in the foregoing picture 
built the walls of the store wide enough to permit the 
construction of a four-story building and he is being urged even 
now to do this. He says he does not see what he can do, when 
he builds, except to duplicate the recess of his neighbor's building. 
When this has been done, the narrow space between these two 
buildings will admit practically no light and will furnish the 
upper floors only with the bad air of the lower floors. In New 
York City the construction of such houses was begun as early 
as 1879, and, although at that time the true character of the house 
was realized, this form became the prevailing type of tenement 
house for nearly twenty years. Since the passage of the new 
law in 1 90 1, the legal requirements have been such that these 
buildings can no longer be erected. Except for the thousands of 
unfortunate families who still live in the old ones, the dumb-bell 
tenements have been for ten years a matter of history. Certain 
types of buildings such as this one are inherently bad, and never 
can be otherwise. It matters not in what city they are located. 
Knowledge of them ought to be universal. The experience which 
New York has had with this form of building ought to satisfy 
all the cities of the country. It would seem that the complete 
demonstration that has been made in that great city should be 
adequate to prevent the building of such houses anywhere. There 
are no peculiar conditions in any city which are so fundamental 
that they need to force in the repetition of the worst features in 
the worst houses in the old building practice of New York City. 
Scattered all through the center there are many other build- 
ings which are paupers in the matter of light. They are being 
supported by their neighbors. In these buildings rooms are 
lighted solely by windows that are located on a side lot-line; 
such rooms being the majority of all rooms in some buildings. 
When the owner of the adjoining lot comes to build, he is almost 
forced to do as the man on the other side of the line has done, 
and by so doing he shuts out the light from the lot-line windows. 
There are numerous buildings where rooms have already been 
made practically windowless in this way. There are several 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 



99 




Old Settler " Marooned." Two three-story houses shut it in at the rear also. 
Both four-story houses have lot-line windows. What will become of them when 
the old settler passes away? 



instances where the man who first built kept away from a side 
line, then the man on the opposite side of the line built close to 
the line and after a while the first man put out a new wall near 
the line. Thus the failure of two men to agree is allowed, by 
our lax public policy, to create dangerous housing conditions which 
will cost the public dearly. Considering the speed with which 
large new buildings are being introduced, it is certain that this 
blockading of windows at the center in Lawrence will increase 
rapidly during the next few years. 

A house with lot-line windows and similar defects has some 
immediate financial advantage to the builder. There can be more 
rooms in a tenement or the rooms can be larger; so that for a 
few years the rents are higher. The builder has benefited him- 
self at the expense of his neighbors and the public. 




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THE CENTER'S FUTURE 103 

Rooming houses were purposely not included in this examina- 
tion. But they should not escape attention entirely; for there are 
a considerable number of new ones and some of them are not 
well lighted, while others will be poorly lighted eventually. Most 
of the new ones have very good exteriors, but in the interiors 
the city is allowing the gradual accumulation of very badly lighted 
living quarters. The newest hotel in the city may easily become 
one of the worst buildings. The building shown on the opposite 
page is by no means a single instance, but a fair sample of all 
this class of dwelling-places. 

That windowless rooms are being constructed in new houses, 
as in shown in the sketch on page 94, needs little comment. For 
more than ten years, thousands and thousands of houses have been 
constructed in New York with a window in every room, as the 
law requires. There is no opportunity for any feeling of com- 
placency that Lawrence is not building a large number of these 
houses. We know too much about the use of such rooms through 
long periods of years to make it possible to think with complacency 
of one such house. 

Two facts partly explain the bad new buildings. Some 
builders plan a house which is suitable enough for a good-sized 
lot. Then they use this plan over and over again, regardless of 
the size of the lot they are building on. This frequently turns 
a good house into a bad house. There seems to be no thought that 
the reduced size of the lot should radically change the form of 
the building. The other fact is the unwarranted toleration of the 
smallest lots. Nearly everyone is ready to excuse wretched con- 
struction on the plea of the smallness of the lot. It seems to be 
considered possible to take from a very small lot half the income 
which could be secured from a lot twice as large. This is un- 
reasonable. In using building material there are certain minimum 
dimensions below which the material has little or no value. The 
same ought to be true concerning the smallest building lots. The 
amount of light admitted into buildings is subjected to definite 
measurements. The necessary measurements for open space in 
relation to width of floor and height of wall cannot be secured on 



104 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

the smallest lots. It ought to be impossible to construct a house 
on them which has half the value of a house on a lot twice as wide. 

As a help to a right view of the seriousness of the conditions, 
we should mark out as best we can in a coarse, rough way the 
number of people who will try to use such a house as that 
described elsewhere, in which there are eight apartments which 
have eleven rooms lighted solely by windows on a lot-line. 
Supposing that these windows are blocked by an adjoining build- 
ing before the end of ten years, and after that the house remains 
in use for sixty years; using the average number of persons in 
private families in Lawrence, and figuring that there will be one 
removal in each apartment every two years, we reach the number 
1,100 persons. At least one thousand persons will try to use 
this house after the windows are blockaded and the rooms are 
practically windowless. This is an underestimate for one house. 

New houses so constructed that there are dark halls, dark 
and crooked stairs, rooms opening only on vent shafts, windowless 
rooms, lot-line windows, large floors unbroken by fire walls, and 
other similar defects are most serious. There is possible 
practically no alteration that betters these conditions. Once in 
existence, they will continue the same till the house is burned or 
torn down. Are not these the conditions that have cost the cities 
of England millions of dollars in the effort to better here and 
there a few patches? Is it wise that a few men should be allowed 
to take for a few years, a little more money than they would 
under reasonable restrictions, and the whole city suffer for it? 
Surely the intelligent citizens in Lawrence have not stopped to 
think about these houses. For such houses at the center of any 
city, and especially in Lawrence where the congestion is already 
so great, are not bad in any onefold, twofold or threefold manner. 
They are seventy times seven bad. The periods of their existence 
will average seventy years. Each one, because it seems possible 
to take a larger income from it than from a better house, will 
cause other new houses to take the same form. In fact, if 
unrestrained, they will become the prevailing form of house at 
the center. This is exactly the history of the infamous dumb-bell 
house in New York City. 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 105 

Houses That Trap Men Like Animals 

The life hazard at the time of a conflagration, when fire 
attacks the exterior of houses, has been mentioned in the first 
pages of the report. The life risk from fires that originate inside 
of houses is excessively high in Lawrence; judging from the 
conditions which exist in the six half-blocks examined; for they 
are typical of about thirty half -blocks at the center. There is 
second egress from thirteen third-floor and two fourth-floor 
apartments only over the roof. When egress is to be had only 
by entering the upper part of a flight of stairs which may already 
be choked with smoke and flames, safe exit is very questionable. 
It is not to be expected that women, children, the old and the 
sick will act rationally or choose such exit when it involves rushing 
through dense smoke or flames. Two other third-floor apartments 
are depending for second egress upon wooden balconies in 
exposed positions. Three have egress only across a bridge through 
another apartment. Egress that involves the possible need for 
breaking into, and then out from, a vacant third-floor apartment 
is not what it should be for the young and the feeble. Four other 
third-story apartments have dangerous exit over roofs where the 
spaces between houses are from three to five feet wide, and it is 
necessary to step over these open spaces. Three houses that are 
not included in the figures of this paragraph had second egress 
completely shut off by obstruction. A description of one of them 
is sufficient. In a rear house there are four apartments, two each 
on the third and fourth floors. The rear stairs lead to the alley 
and were completely blocked by rubbish and wood at the second 
floor and on the first flight. They remained impassable below the 
second floor for more than nine months, and were in that condition 
when last seen. There are, in addition to the foregoing, thirty- 
five third-floor and seven fourth-floor apartments which have no 
second egress whatever. This makes in six half-blocks a total of 
sixty-six third and fourth-floor apartments which have insufficient 
egress. Under nine of them there are seven bakeshops. 



io6 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



What No Second Egress from a Third Floor Means 




2 KILLED BY LEAP AT FIRE. 



Fire started mysteriously on the 
ground floor of a tenement house at 
33o. 250 Powell street, East New York, 
at 4 o'clock* yesterday morning. The 
rooms of Julius Shapiro and his family 
were on the top floor. 

The (Shapiros groped their way to the 
front of the building. Shapiro stood on 
l narrow ledge at the third floor and 
dropped his Infant Sidney safely into 
Policeman Thomas Goodman's arms. 
The father next dropped nine-year-old 
Aaron with like success. Aaron's hair 
was aflame. George and Sadie Shapiro, 
fourteen and twelve, were then dropped 
by their father. George's right leg was 
fractured, Sadie's skull and left leg 
were fractured and both were hurt inter- 
nally. 

Shapiro and his wife jumped and 
both were instantly killed. 

"I would be pleased to receive con- 
tributions addressed to me, for the 
children, care of Box 14, Station P, 
Brooklyn/' said Alderman Alexander 
Drescher. 



N. Y. World, Nov. 4, 191 1. (Pg. 16, Col. 4). 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 107 

East New York is a district in Brooklyn. The house con- 
tained two tenements above a store; and, because it is a two- 
family house, it is not under the state tenement house law. Each 
item of the accident as described above has been corroborated in 
a letter from Mr. Drescher. Was there any accident about the 
fact that the house had no second egress? 

In view of all the knowledge we have of the daily occurrences 
in the cities of this country, was the event described below an 
accident, or something else? The Hartford Courant of December 
4, 191 1, under the heading "Woman Suffocated in Old Fire 
Trap," says : 

" Through what the officials term a violation of the tenement 
house law Mrs. Jane Banks, 71 years old, lost her life late yesterday 
afternoon in a tenement house fire at No. 37 Wolcott street. The 
fire was of unknown origin, starting on the third floor, which 
was occupied by Mrs. Banks and her husband. 

" Engine company No. 8 is located only a few blocks from 
the scene of the fire. Two ladders were put up the side of the 
house, but the fire was so hot and the smoke so dense the firemen 
could not penetrate the part of the building where 'the body was 
later found. 

" The intense heat of the room had baked the body. The skin 
had peeled off the face and hands, and the hair was scorched off 
her head. The fact that her clothing was not burned indicated 
that she had not been actually touched by the fire, but dropped 
overcome by the smoke, and the heat of the room did the rest. 

" Medical Examiner W. W. Knight was called, and he 
questioned Ladderman Collins about the finding of the body. The 
body was lying on the floor near a window, and it is believed that 
the old woman, who had been left sleeping some time before 
the fire started, awoke to find the place on fire and that when she 
found that she could not get to the stairs, her only means of 
escape, she tried to get back to the window of her sitting-room, 
but was overcome by the smoke before she got there. 

"The house is an old one, and was originally a four-family 
tenement, with two tenements on a floor on each side of the 
brick block. It had been made over into a six-family block, 
however, and while the tenement house laws call for two means 
of egress to the ground from each tenement, there was only one 
from the third floor, and that is why the old woman could not be 
saved in the early stages of the fire." 



108 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Lawrence Needs No More Disasters 

Three years ago the fire underwriters said concerning ex- 
plosives and inflammables in Lawrence : " The City laws are very 
meager and are not being enforced." The citizens cannot claim 
that they must wait for an explosion in Lawrence to make them 
feel that gunpowder will do there what it does elsewhere. They 
cannot claim that they must wait for a disaster in Lawrence like 
that in Brooklyn before making all buildings safe, or wait for 
another sweeping conflagration in New England before estab- 
lishing an extensive fire district. They cannot claim that any 
exigencies in the building business, no matter what they are, make 
it necessary to wait for twelve or fifteen blocks of windowless 
houses before light and ventilation shall be required by law. The 
long period of indifference or ineffective interest ought to end. 

The Social Results of Bad Housing 

Such centers as the one in Lawrence are not only seriously 
wrong, but especially dangerous to the common welfare, because of 
the new-comers who are filling the centers. In each of the three 
states, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York, among every 
three persons only one has parents who were born in this country. 
In Lawrence, among every five persons four are the children of 
foreign-born parents. The English-speaking element in Lawrence 
is large, but in the last decade the non-English speaking element 
has been growing rapidly. 

This is adding to our problems rapidly. Already the 
great majority of those who live in the crowded districts of the 
cities are persons from countries where the theory and practice 
of democracy either do not exist or have not progressed as in 
this country. Good citizenship is based on the moral integrity 
of individuals. We cannot have good citizens who use honestly 
and intelligently the opportunity to control our city affairs unless 
as children they are protected and helped in houses that are 
worthy the name homes. Many tenement houses at the center in 
Lawrence are permanently injuring the child-life that is in them. 
Because of the dim light, eyes are being strained and the rooms 



THE CENTER'S FUTURE 109 

are not being properly cleaned. Children are being brought up 
in rooms where it is constantly possible to see into and across 
the bed-rooms of other tenements, because they are so near. Dark 
halls at night are universal; yet they offer grave moral risk for 
the young, as many realize who know the life in the tenements. 
Some of the most important testimony taken by the New York 
1900 tenement house commission shows what potent adjuncts 
dark halls are in demoralizing and ruining the lives of young 
people. The overcrowding of tenements with numerous boarders 
is demoralizing. The presence of dissolute tenants, especially the 
women, is debasing. 

There are other social results of poor houses. We are 
inclined to consider the dimly lighted tenement too superficially. 
It is not a home but a tool-box. The gloomy rooms are not 
only not attractive but actually drive the children and many an 
adult into the street and away from the home. To the many other 
forces w r hich are constantly interfering with family life, drawing 
and keeping the members of the family away from each other, 
we are allowing the repellant home to be added. The members 
of a family ought to know each other better. We need better 
and stronger home influence, to preserve and foster the integrity 
of the individuals; and we are not wise, if we do not see that 
bad housing has a distinct, deteriorating influence on character; 
while on the character of the individuals the stability of our 
institutions is based. 



" Since things alter for the worse 
spontaneously, if they be never 
altered for the better designedly, 
how is the evil to stop} 1 ' 

—BACON 



THE REMEDY 

It is mid-day. The time for inaction is long passed. But 
action should be in the direction that will lead to the speediest, 
the most fundamental and the most secure relief. It is extremely 
doubtful whether adequate, effective action for the control of the 
conditions in Lawrence is attainable through any city legislation. 
Those among its citizens who know the city best and have the 
best interests of the city near their heart know better than the 
public knows what an extremely weak, and exceptionally broken 
assembly of peoples the city is. Though the pride of the 
individuals in their city may be as great as it is in most cities, the 
best of the citizens if they are honest with themselves must quietly 
acknowledge the fact. But the fact because of its relation to the 
housing condition is not one that can be merely quietly asserted. 
It must be openly faced, publicly asserted, if the help is to be 
secured that will bring in adequate remedies. It is not just to the 
better citizens in Lawrence to speak of it in direct comparison 
with other cities. The citizens with influence and civic ideals are 
too few. The prospect of successfully controlling the building 
of houses in the indefensibly congested center cannot be considered 
without mentioning the absence of the mill owners as residents. 
Stated baldly, Lawrence is an appendage to the textile industries — 
a tool-room attached to a workshop. Many cities have such 
economic balance within themselves that they are far more 
integers than Lawrence and far better able to take care of them- 
selves. The city is woefully weak because there is lacking in the 
control of its civic affairs, the direct sense of shame and personal 
responsibility and the efficient, public-spirited, controlling interest 
which the mill owning families would have, if they were residents. 
Because the mill owners live outside of the city, the housing 
problem is a state problem, and can be solved only by state 
legislation. 

This is true of other factory cities in New England. The 
economic power of the corporation over-shadows and dominates 



ii2 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

for corporate purposes the weak city government in which the 
owners of the corporations as individuals and citizens have no 
responsibility and little interest, because they are not residents. To 
these political units, which are not economic units, or are so out 
of balance with the economic facts, the theory of home rule is 
ill-suited. 

Our economic relations have greatly changed. This is 
remarkably well exemplified by the early relations of the textile 
employers to their employees as tenants. The mill owners founded 
the town for their manufacturing purpose. It was a component 
part of their project. They planned painstakingly for it and its 
welfare. They built sewers at their own expense and planted 
ornamental trees and shrubbery. For their employees they built 
houses that were large, but considering their date, exceedingly 
good houses. Some are still in use and are superior to many of 
the houses that are being built in the center now. For certain 
streets they stipulated that no lot should have on it more than 
one house and no house contain more than one family. They 
limited the height of and specified material for buildings on the 
main business street. But their intentions extended beyond the 
founding of the town as a business project. 

What we call the industrial revolution had at that time 
brought in machines and factories in large numbers, but had not 
yet spoiled the feelings of the employers. Their point of view was 
that of the employing artisan toward his apprentice. Large 
numbers of the employees were unmarried and away from home. 
Boarding-houses were maintained or controlled by the companies 
at a low profit, and sometimes at an annual expense, for the 
purpose of preserving a proper supervision over the operatives. 
The mill agents were chosen as men who had wisdom for super- 
vision of the houses as well as the mills. By rules and regulations 
posted in all the houses, the attempt was made to safeguard not 
only the physical welfare of the tenants, but their moral and 
religious life. Men and women were not allowed in the same 
boarding-house. Tenants were cautioned to pay particular atten- 
tion to the cleanliness and daily ventilation of their rooms, were 
required to keep a quiet bed-room for the sick, and were vaccinated 



THE REMEDY 113 

at the office of the company at the company's expense. They were 
required to be in the house by ten o'clock at night, were expected 
to keep their twelve to fourteen year old children constantly in 
school, and were expected to attend divine service on the Sabbath. 
The corporation furnished a library and maintained a relief fund. 
We may smile when we first read their rules, but our sober second 
thought ought to bring us a deep feeling of gratitude that the 
philanthropic purpose in the employers was once so strong. What 
we smile at is the method of expressing the purpose, because the 
method is so ill-suited to our present social conditions. The com- 
panies were not many years in finding this out. The surveillance 
of course proved too troublesome. They learned the lesson that 
some other industrial corporations have yet to learn. They ceased 
to be landlords long ago, and have thus escaped the tangled 
relationship which made the town of Pullman a failure for many 
years, and has given serious trouble at Ludlow and elsewhere. 

Recently one of the largest mill corporations has resumed 
this relationship in Lawrence, to the extent of building in 1907-8-9 
houses for 142 families. Fifty-two are in cottages of exceedingly 
good design. They are on large lots, and serve as a benefit to a 
few families, an attractive feature of the town and an advertise- 
ment to the company. The rest of the houses are good houses, 
almost too good to be interesting to commercial builders. In view 
of the fact that this Company employs from three to four thousand 
operatives who rent apartments, the 142 apartments in these good 
houses are as a drop in a bucket. If anyone asserts that the 
purpose of the corporation in maintaining the houses as a financial 
burden is to benefit the employees, he should be asked whether the 
method is not still missing fire like an old flint-lock gun. 

There are other great civic needs in Lawrence besides the 
housing conditions. It is symptomatic of a general condition. We 
can, any of us, dream in a Utopian manner of an interest among 
the mill owners that would make them willing to say definitely to 
their representatives in Lawrence : " We feel that the city has 
reached a position which demands some of your attention and 
time, and we are willing that you should consider yourself free to 
participate in any civic movement which seems to you to be worth 



ii4 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

while for the immediate betterment of the city's affairs. In fact 
the need there is sufficient to make us desire to have your influence 
count even though in some particulars your activities should tem- 
porarily work against our interest as a corporation. We will trust 
your judgment. You will be acting as an individual. You are 
not representing the corporation; but in the end you are working 
for the corporation's best interests, and we shall so regard the 
time you spend in enterprises that are genuinely for the best 
interest of the city as a whole." 

Dreams sometimes come true, but even if this one should, 
it is doubtful whether the actual results achieved could be more 
than a partial remedy for the housing conditions. The forces at 
work are too deep and too strong. Huddling people together 
is a disease. It generates profits that are a poison, intoxicating 
the whole community. With unusually strong religious prejudices 
and race hatreds, and with the absence of those who conduct its 
chief enterprises, such a community would seem to have the chances 
all against its being able to cure itself. 

The citizens who are genuinely interested in the city's welfare 
will welcome the day that wipes out the fictitious lines of the 
present political unit and establishes the unit more nearly according 
to the economic facts by including in it the towns, Methuen and 
the Andovers. Lawrence needs state legislation. 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED IS HOUSING 
LEGISLATION 

Contemporaneously with a cholera epidemic in 1849, Lemuel 
Shattuck, one of Boston's citizens, became actively interested in 
securing healthful living conditions. With two others he was 
appointed by the state legislature to bring in a report on the 
conditions. " The report of the Sanitary Commission of Massa- 
chusetts : 1850" is a historical document of 500 pages, simple 
in its purpose and comprehensive in its argument for the estab- 
lishment of a State Board of Health. It was chiefly a housing 
investigation and so is one of the earliest in the country. Besides 
describing the conditions in the center of Boston, it presents in 
about thirty pages a sanitary survey of Lawrence, to illustrate one 
of its chief objects, namely : " We recommend that special sanitary 
surveys of particular cities, towns and localities be made from time 
to time, under the direction of the general Board of Health." 

The examination of Lawrence, then a town of 8,000, was 
quite comprehensive and has preserved a picture of its life in the 
early days as no other book has. It has much praise for the living 
conditions found there. One of its conclusions concerning the 
town is especially interesting in view of the present congestion. 
" We recommend that every practical effort be made to prevent 
crowding too many houses upon one lot and too many families 
or persons into one house." 

It is a melancholy fact that this young town that happened 
to be chosen as a field to illustrate a method for improving living 
conditions should have developed since that time the most con- 
gested center in New England, apart from Boston. But Lawrence 
is fortunate in having some citizens who are interested in finding 
out the facts and willing to face them publicly. Outside of Boston 
it is the first city in the state to have a formal housing investiga- 
tion and print an extensive report. It is fitting that Lawrence 
should call the attention of the other cities to the state-wide need 
for housing legislation. 



n6 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The direct arguments for state control of housing which 
have been set forth by Mr. Lawrence Veiller in his book " Housing 
Reform," are incontrovertible, and there is no state that needs 
such legislation more than Massachusetts. No other state has an 
equal urban population distributed in many cities. There are 
twenty-seven cities and one town that have populations of more 
than 20,000. Sixty-two per cent of the people in the state live 
in cities of more than 30,000. An increase in population of more 
than 30 per cent each decade is common. The prices of real estate 
at the centers are going up by leaps and bounds — frequently 
doubling in less than ten years. There is being repeated in many 
of the centers, the crowding of houses which has been going on 
in Boston for one hundred years and has made its center notorious. 
Into already congested centers, large, poorly-lighted new houses 
are being crowded rapidly. For a century their dark rooms will 
continue to drive occupants into the street and foster disease as 
much as the old houses. With greater fire risks, conditions 
identical with those of New York's East Side are increasing yearly. 

Yet the state law has practically no housing requirements and 
the ordinances in the majority of the cities are either worthless 
or ignore the subject of light, ventilation and sanitation. In a 
few cities such as Cambridge, Worcester and Lowell, there are 
a few fair requirements. 

But most of the real and best housing interests of the cities 
are wholly unprovided for. Nine out of ten of the building codes 
treat of no other subject than fire protection and structural safety, 
and for these two purposes many of them are gravely inadequate. 

Consider the requirements for part of the sanitary equipment, 
the water-closets. There is no requirement concerning the number 
of water-closets that shall be placed in a house in eleven cities; 
and in a twelfth city the requirement is one for every twelve 
persons, a method of measurement that is almost useless. Three 
cities permit water-closet windows to open on a shaft of three 
square feet- area, three others permit flues of six to eight inches; 
seven accept in place of a window the small two-inch pipe known 
as the local vent ; two say the ventilation shall be " adequate," and 
six cities have no requirement. Practically no one of the cities 
has anything to say about the floors. 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED 117 

In securing building codes from the twenty-seven cities which 
have a population of more than 20,000, it was found that two 
cities have no code, and four codes were out of print. Among 
twenty-one codes, fifteen speak of the space from the sides of a 
house to the side lot line, specifying distances that range from 
1.5 feet to three feet, with only one city requiring four feet; 
such restrictions in all codes being made applicable to frame build- 
ings only. Six codes are silent on the subject. Five codes only 
have anything to say about yards. Two codes only speak of 
courts. Shafts and light-wells are almost unmentioned. Only 
three codes have anything to say about the size or presence of a 
window in a room. Life is too short even to read a summary of 
all the important matters upon which these codes are. silent. 

If one glances casually into the paragraphs of many of the 
codes, he is impressed with the fact that they read well. Some 
of them have good requirements, very good requirements. But 
the impression that the paragraphs are good is not sufficient basis 
for judgment of the code as a whole. Such impression is based 
on an altogether too meager view, — the comparison of these 
paragraphs with nothing. We ought to read the building code 
of our city with a point of view different from that. In view of 
the rapid growth of these cities and their centers ; in view of the 
present pressing need that conflagration hazard and fire waste be 
reduced, not augmented; that old houses be improved; that all 
houses be maintained in safe and serviceable, clean and sanitary 
conditions; that every new house shall for all time have adequate 
light and ventilation; in view of these needs, most of the present 
building ordinances are so ineffective and archaic as to be fit 
chiefly for a place in a historical library under the label, " The 
first crude playthings of the infant cities." This is not extrava- 
gant language spoken by an idealist. The better class of architects 
know and acknowledge it to be true and the prominent insurance 
men are active in proclaiming the fact to the public. 

The General Court of Massachusetts is one of the few legis- 
latures that persists in meeting annually. It holds long sessions 
and has created innumerable commissions : it has the commission 
habit. Yet none of the commissions in recent years has been on 



n8 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

housing, except the Homestead Commission, established June 30, 
191 1. This act provided for a permanent, unpaid commission of 
seven to report plans whereby, with the assistance of the Com- 
monwealth, homesteads may be acquired by workmen in the 
suburbs of the cities and towns. As an attempt to foster com- 
munities like the garden cities of England such legislation, though 
desirable, is but a slight palliative. It does not deal with the 
problems discussed in this report. The Legislature has jealously 
held with tight hand to its great power over the cities; yet the 
sum total of its acts for the control of houses in a state which 
has twenty-seven large, rapidly-growing cities is a few trivial and 
ineffective paragraphs.* 

In contrast with this most deplorable lack of legislation as 
it existed in January, 1912, we may well place the statement of 
one of Massachusetts' most prominent men. 

" We cannot push the troubles and cares of working 
men and women into the background, and trust that all 
will come out right in the end. Practical measures are 
plentiful enough:" among others: "economical and 
energetic municipal governments; proper building laws. 
Here are matters of great pith and moment, more 
important, more essential, more pressing than any others. 
They must be met; they cannot be shirked or evaded." 

These are the words of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge spoken 
twenty-eight years ago. 

Lawrence at that time was a city of 38,000 and the history 
of its center would have been far different if action to remedy the 
need that was then recognized had not been delayed through all 
these years. 

But the national prize for procrastination in housing legis- 
lation is held by Boston. Boston began having housing 



*Just after the completion of this report a bill was introduced into 
the Legislature and passed May, 1912, which gives permission to the 
towns to enact the housing regulations therein specified. The legislation 
has nothing to do with the cities considered in this report. It serves 
for the towns as a model law which has received the stamp of approval 
by the State Legislature. They may adopt it, if they choose. 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED 119 

investigations almost as early as New York. The 1849 report of 
the cholera epidemic shows the crowded tenement districts in clear 
and definite lines. The report of the Sanitary Commission of 
1850 not only sets forth at length the evils of bad houses in 
Boston and London, but states the need for prevention, rather 
than cure so clearly that it reads as if it had been written for our 
needs as we see them now. 

After citing various philanthropic purposes, the report con- 
tinues : " A great amount of labor and money are spent in the 
propagation of these sentiments. But how few of such persons 
(the philanthropic) apparently turn aside to notice the thousands 
of lives that are unnecessarily sacrificed — the social murders and 
suicides that are daily occurring around us on account of the 
existing evils which might be removed. If the same seal, labor 
and money were expended in diffusing correct sanitary inform- 
ation among the people, in removing the causes of diseases which 
prey upon them, — how many more lives might be saved. We 
woidd not lisp a word against the great charities, nor wish the 
contributions to them had been smaller. It may, however, be 
stated that the number of recipients of these charities is com- 
paratively few and limited. They comprehend a very small part 
only of the great masses of the people. And there is no doubt 
that if the same amount of money which our measure might 
require were applied to the careful ascertainment of the causes, a 
much greater number of beneficiaries might be assisted. All along 
we have endeavored to prove that prevention is better than cure. 
We urge the removal of the causes that produce the misery which 
these streams of benevolence are applied to alleviate:' This is not 
" Boston — 1915 " but Boston — 1850. 

Since 1850 numerous investigations have taken place with 
little or no adequate result beyond the printed report. Until, after 
all these years, the last word at the opening of 19 12 is a small 
pamphlet which bears the significant title, " Boston's Housing 
Problem — Preliminary Report." It professedly takes up the 
work of the Housing Committee of " Boston — 1915 " where that 
committee left it, saying that the needs have been sufficiently 
investigated; hence its pages are devoted to the discussion of 



120 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

so-called remedies. There is but one remedy — and that is barely 
alluded to in the report. Nothing is said of legislation directly. 
It asserts the duty of the city not to bear down heavily on the 
holders of small equities in tenement houses as if, inferentially, 
this is an insurmountable obstacle and ought to dispel from the 
mind of the reader any consideration of legislation. 

Of course the word preliminary in the title of this last pam- 
phlet merely means that it is the first report of another new group 
who are beginning to take an interest in housing, and that fact 
leads one to wonder what has become of the interest of the men 
who brought in all the previous reports. When the need has so 
long been so pressing and overwhelmingly great, the fact that all 
reports have been so fruitless should in itself be a subject for serious 
study and report. For Boston's history in this subject is not dif- 
ferent from New York's through all the years of its dire need for 
action up to the year 1900. There, too, reports had accomplished 
almost nothing, while the most dangerous and defective houses 
were being added by the thousands for every year of delay. From 
1900 on, the preeminently singular fact among a score of salient 
facts is that the small group of men who were active in the 1900 
tenement house commission were just as active twelve years later 
and just as single in purpose. Apparently for them the main- 
tenance of a decent law well administered that prevents the 
construction of the worst houses admits of no action on their part 
in any tangential line, tax reform, model houses, city planning or 
any other. The results have been most remarkable. 

Chicago has a strikingly similar historical fact in another 
field of activity. A handful of men around a stationer began to 
tell in the bulletins of the Municipal Voters League who, and 
exactly who with all their characteristics, were being nominated 
for election as aldermen. The majority of the men in the council 
chamber for years had been venal, and the city's streets were about 
to be sold to the street railways for fifty years. The League's 
succinct statements based on comprehensively minute examination 
continued for at least a decade to appear just prior to each 
election ; but they gave no advice on any other candidates than 
those for council and on no public questions. By this method 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED 121 

this very small group of men turned the council inside out in time 
to save the streets and kept it renovated. 

In contrast with innumerable reports brought in by different 
groups at different times and bearing no results, what we have in 
these two historical instances seems to be : A program so simple 
that it can be stated in a sentence, yet is fundamentally adequate, 
adhered to undeviatingly through a long period. The prime need 
in Massachusetts where so many centers are crying to heaven for 
preventive legislation is a small group of wise men with money, 
who care, will keep on caring and will keep together. To secure 
a good law, keep it and keep it well enforced cannot be accom- 
plished in one or two winters, nor can it be accomplished by the 
intermittent attention of any number of social workers. 

The hardships involved in new legislation are not extensive. 
The wiping out of the equities of small owners is a minor incident, 
full of hardship for a very few, but not adequate ground for 
further criminal waiting. This hardship was not a convincing 
argument to a single judge in all the various courts up to and 
including the United States Supreme Court, through which the 
historic Katie Moeschen case passed, though it was the main 
argument in that case. It is not a convincing argument after all 
these years during which the introduction of new machines has 
been displacing so many industrial workers. The hardships of a 
few can not be placed over against the welfare and progress of 
the whole community. 

If this is true of those who at present hold control by small 
equities over tenement houses, what shall we say of their right to 
build new tenement houses at the crowded centers? They build 
wretched houses. One of the worst of the recently built tenements 
in Lawrence was constructed under the control of a laborer, who 
makes his living delivering baskets of coal on his back. He has 
secured control of a lot adjoining his first house and is planning 
to erect a second one of these wretched beehives for twelve 
families. One of the worst new rear buildings, less than four 
years old, was constructed under the control of another recent 
immigrant whose family lives in a small house which he owns, 
in the front of the lot. His aged mother sleeps in a windowless 



122 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

room; his wife and daughter are kept hard at work in the kitchen 
for boarders, and he is away all summer on his truck farm. He 
was planning to erect soon a second wretched tenement at the 
front of the lot. Such hard-working but ignorant and unskilled 
laborers, whose sole object is the saving of money and whose 
standard for themselves and their families is often miserable, are 
able to save one or two thousand dollars. They have no sense 
of civic responsibility and not the slightest ability to design a 
house for that most difficult of sites, the narrow city lot. Their 
right to own their own home is one thing, and their right to go 
into the business of providing and maintaining homes for other 
people, under no control, is quite a different matter. Such men 
as these apply to the banks and secure, many times with little or 
no examination of plans, loans that make it possible for them 
to burden the future of the city with their low standards built into 
a house. This is not peculiar to Lawrence; it is taking place in 
all the cities of Massachusetts. The wretched houses that are 
being thus constructed will last from sixty to one hundred years, 
and they will cost the cities dearly in weakened lives and lowered 
standards. 

There are twenty-seven reasons why the state should not 
enact any housing legislation. They are the groups of men who 
are taking inordinate profits in the houses at the centers of the 
twenty-seven cities. There are twenty-seven other groups of men 
who would be found favoring the legislation, especially after they 
consider what it means to them. These are men who know what 
a good building is and are doing their best to construct only that 
kind. They have been and they will increasingly be forced into 
bad construction, because they are in competition with unre- 
strained, conscienceless or ignorant builders. There is no doubt 
that they will welcome housing legislation. Naturally some of 
them may hold back from favoring some of the standards that 
might be enacted, but their approval would be forthcoming shortly, 
if they were to inquire into the experience of other cities. One 
reason why the hardship of new high standards is more mythical 
than real, is because every builder at first thinks of himself alone 
as complying with the standards. In reality, all builders bear the 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED 123 

change, and the figures of the better builders can be made to 
accommodate themselves to the standards. 

The two strongest arguments against a state law are, first 
that minimum standards enacted will level down some of the 
construction now taking place, and second that it would be 
almost impossible to make a law which equitably deals with the 
varying conditions that exist in different cities. To illustrate the 
possible leveling down effect of the law, let us consider the open 
space between the side wall of a house and its lot. Some builders 
who are now making the width of this space, without a law, six 
or seven feet, might with a law leave only the minimum demanded 
and that might not be more than five or six feet. Thus a 
considerable number of houses might be given some less light 
than they would have been given, if the law had not been passed. 
It is conjectural, of course, how extensive such leveling would 
be. The reason why six or seven feet and more is now left by 
some builders is, they believe the houses are better houses, — 
have more value in them. It is questionable whether there would 
be any considerable leveling, except possibly in a narrow zone just 
at the edge around the centers. Even if it were positively 
determinable that there would be considerable leveling, the idea 
that it should be avoided by allowing the centers to fill up solidly 
with any kind of construction is untenable. 

The loss made by the law is far outweighed by gains. Con- 
sider the question of leveling down in connection with a minimum- 
sized room. The minimum in the New York law of seventy 
square feet floor space was enacted for the most exceptional 
crowding on the face of the earth. Outside of Boston's wretched 
center there is no reason for enacting a standard anywhere near 
so low. If we can judge from the conditions in Lawrence, the 
cities have not been constructing any considerable number of 
rooms nearly so small as seventy square feet. In general the 
public has not become accustomed to such small rooms, and will 
not rent them. It ought to be possible, now, to enact a require- 
ment for cities outside of Boston that no room shall have less 
than ninety or one hundred square feet. But will that be possible 
ten years from now ? Already in Lawrence in some of the newest 



124 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

houses there are rooms of seventy-five and eighty square feet. 
They are occupied by recent immigrants and they have lot line 
windows. Evidently, the point has been reached already in 
Lawrence where the large returns desired must come from making 
the rooms smaller and forcing people to become used to them. 
No matter how many rooms would be leveled down by the enact- 
ment of a hundred-foot minimum now, they do not outweigh the 
probability of having to accept ten years from now a minimum 
of seventy square feet. 

To write a law that would deal equitably with the varying 
conditions in the different cities is neither impossible nor almost 
impossible, but simply difficult. The housing problem is of 
course a group of problems in any city, and when we add the 
differences that exist between cities, as Springfield contrasted with 
Lawrence, Chicopee with Pittsfield, etc., we have made the 
question somewhat complex. Yet it is seriously questionable 
whether our sense of the complications is not due to too hurried 
and superficial consideration of the subject. Lowell has a center 
full of bad old houses and has indefensibly bad new houses, but 
the Lawrence center has not been duplicated there. It is probably 
demonstrable that the house huddle in Lawrence is not due to 
the wage scale. It is chiefly difference in wages that would make 
any reason for thinking the standards of a state law ought not 
to be equally applicable in all the cities. For the other elements 
are all common, — the human need for safety, sanitary equipment, 
light and air. To secure these, irreducible minimum standards 
would seem to be related only indirectly to the character of the 
population or the locality. If the same social foresight will 
prevail in housing legislation that has already prevailed in some 
of the state legislation, it will make the common need for safety, 
sanitary equipment, light and air, the all controlling factor in the 
question. Without doubt, the law should be specific in its demands 
and they should be based on an extended examination of the facts 
gathered and related in a scientific spirit. 

Massachusetts will find a way to meet the need. Anyone 
would have thought that Boston's crooked streets would have 
been one of the last places for a trial of cars with trolley poles and 



THE STATE'S DIRE NEED 125 

wires. Yet Boston was one of the first of the largest cities to 
make use of such arrangements. Boston's center needed the 
electric power more than most cities. The transportation per- 
plexities in Boston, with such traffic as one hundred and twenty 
cars per hour passing steadily through Tremont Street, and with 
a most difficult topography, made one of the worst problems in 
the country. But Boston was one of the first cities to come some- 
where near adequately solving her transportation problem, and 
apparently she is doing more than many cities in keeping pace 
with it. The exceptionally great need brought the adequate and 
seemingly impossible remedy. 

The statement that the need for restrictive housing legislation 
is greater in Massachusetts than in any other state is probably 
unquestionable, based on the present lack of legislation, the total 
number of lives involved, the number of urban centers and the 
speed with which those centers are filling. Massachusetts has an 
exceptionally great opportunity to lead the other states in estab- 
lishing and maintaining an adequate remedy. The subject is, 
primarily, a question of public health. Massachusetts was the first 
state to establish a State Board of Health with state-wide 
functions. 

Xo state law meets the need .that does not provide adequately 
for supervising the local administration of the law. Connecticut 
has a fair state law and no provision for direct or indirect watch- 
care of its enforcement. New Jersey has direct state enforcement 
of a law that is most seriously defective. State supervision of a 
locally administered law has yet to be effected. If a permanent 
housing commission of the dignity and status of the Railroad 
Commission were not established, Massachusetts has already estab- 
lished, and was among the first states to establish, state inspectors 
of health, with whom the supervision of a State housing law could 
be placed. It was the first state to establish a health district system 
with physicians as state inspectors. These physicians are doing 
pioneer work in demonstrating that factory and tenement house 
hygiene are a part of community hygiene. 

No state law would meet the need that did not require that 
the cities shall keep uniform statistics and that the statistics shall 



126 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

be subject to a ready verification as is demanded in auditing 
financial accounts. The statements of a city department concerning 
its activity in enforcing the law must be based upon records which 
can be readily examined and verified. It must also be possible to 
compare the working of the law in the various cities, and that 
would require uniform statistics. In its bureau of statistics, 
Massachusetts has already adopted the principle of demanding 
uniform financial statistics from all its cities and towns. It was 
among the first to do this, and is leading the others in its 
accomplishment. 

The long list of progressive movements in which Massachu- 
setts stands first and near the first is an earnest that the shameful 
neglect of the housing conditions will not continue much longer. 



HOUSING, MISCELLANY AND TABLES 



Stairs With Winding Treads 

The New York state law excludes from all stairs, except those 
in elevator houses, every step which is not of uniform width 
throughout its length, that is, the triangular treads. They are com- 
mon current practice with architects in Lawrence. There are ap- 
proximately 600 such triangular steps in seventy of the houses ex- 
amined. By day these steps are a trap for unwary feet, especially 
for the very young and very old. They are constantly an unmit- 
igated nuisance and danger for every one in unlighted halls at 
night. They are extremely dangerous at time of panic in a fire at 
night. If thousands and thousands of houses have been built for 
ten years in New York without these steps, it is a fair question to 
raise whether they are necessary in Lawrence. 

The Number of Persons in Apartments 

The proportion of apartments which contained more than one 
family is as follows. 

The number of families in each apartment is : 





More than 
Two 


Two 


More than 
One 


Common Street 

Valley 

Oak 

Oxford 


21 per cent 
1 " " 
" " 
" " 


40 per cent 
14 " " 

22 " " 
« « 


61 per cent 

15 " « 

22 " " 

" « 



The following statements apply to the Common Street half- 
blocks. In the twenty-two per cent (forty-two apartments) where 
there are more than two families in each apartment, there are 460 
persons living, an average of eleven persons per apartment. 

In forty-one apartments there is an average of more than 
three persons in each room, excluding the kitchen. Each of six 
apartments is the home for fourteen persons, one for fifteen, and 
one for eighteen; all the apartments having four rooms besides a 



128 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

kitchen. The rate of four persons per room is reached in the 
apartment where eighteen live and also in another apartment where 
eight persons live in two rooms and kitchen. 

The average number of persons per apartment was as follows : 
in the two half -blocks at the east end of Common Street, the average 
was eight; in one of the Valley Street half-blocks, 6.5; in the 
other, 6 ; in the Oak Street half-block, 5.9 ; and in Oxford Street, 4 6. 

Air Shafts; Windowless Halls; Small Rooms. 

Air shafts that serve solely water closets and bath-rooms are 
being constructed in Brooklyn. The area required in a three-story 
house is at least fourteen square feet, in a four-story house at least 
seventeen square feet. There can be no dimension less than four 
feet, no hall or room window opening to the shaft, no roof of any 
kind, and at the bottom there must be a horizontal duct of four 
square feet to furnish a supply of fresh air. 

In the six half-blocks four air shafts were measured where 
the area is less than ten square feet. A fifth has twelve square feet. 
One of the shafts is the only source of light and ventilation for 
eight living rooms, the other shafts serve 26 water closets, 19 sink 
rooms and one living room. 

In the district examination there were found 20 air shafts 
which do not serve living rooms, six of them have areas smaller 
than would be required in Brooklyn practice. All the shafts are 
covered with a skylight ; a few are open to the cellar and no one 
of them has a duct supplying fresh air at the bottom. The shafts 
serve 115 water closets and 50 sink rooms. This location of the 
sink rooms which are the work rooms for the women is seriously 
defective in ventilation and light. 

Among twenty-two stair halls where there are no windows, 
there are nine that have no skylight. A skylight that serves to light 
halls ought to be twenty square feet in area and there should be 
immediately under it that open space at the side of the stairs which 
is called the stair well. This stair well to be effective should be at 
least twelve inches wide. There are five windowless stair halls 
where the skylights have an area less than eleven square feet, and 



HOUSING 129 

in four of them there are no stair wells. In sixteen of the halls 
where there are skylights there are no ventilating attachments. 

In the six half -blocks there are no rooms with a strikingly 
small floor area excepting in the two half-blocks on Common street. 
There twelve rooms in six houses have areas less than seventy 
square feet; six of them being from fifty to sixty square feet in 
area. Eleven were used as bed-rooms. 

In the windowless rooms mentioned on page 64 the area of 
the intercommunicating window is less than six square feet in each 
of eleven rooms. In two others there is an area from ten to twelve 
square feet. Among the remaining eight where the area is more 
than fifteen square feet, in four rooms the large interior windows 
secure no secondary light, and they are practically dark rooms. 

Percentage of Occupancy on Corner Lots 

On corner lots less than 50 feet wide, less than 90 per cent 
of the lot should be occupied, and there ought to be a rear yard of 
not less than five feet for the full width of the lot. In nine corner 
lots two are occupied to the extent of 95.5 per cent, and there is 
no yard whatever on either lot. On another lot where the per- 
centage of occupancy is not too high, the rear yard is less than two 
feet deep. 

There is another class of corner lots where instead of a second 
street at the side of the house, a fourteen-foot alley occurs. A 
house on such a corner does not receive more than a third as much 
light as one on an ordinary street corner. It ought not to occupy 
more than 75 percent of the lot. There are five such corners in 
these six half-blocks; and on one of them the house occupies 91.7 
percent and has no rear yard. In two others 82 to 85 percent is 
occupied, one of the rear yards being 3ft. 6in. in depth. 

The Open Spaces on the Lots 

Concerning the open spaces at various points around a house, 
there are one or two terms which have the same meaning in nearly 
all laws, but there are some spaces for which there is no one term 
commonly used. If a name is to be given them, it has to be ex- 
plained. 



1 3 o LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Rear yard in this report means the space between a house and 
an alley or rear lot line. Such spaces in connection with corner lots 
have been mentioned. There are two rear yards on interior lots 
less than 7.5 feet deep; one 16 feet deep; the rest more than 25 feet. 
In the majority of the lots there is either a rear house on the alley 
line and so no rear yard or else there is only a front house with a 
rear yard of good depth. 

Interior yard means the space between front and rear houses. 
If such a yard were to occur in connection with new tenement 
houses in the Connecticut cities it would have to be thirty feet deep. 
It is prohibited in Brooklyn on lots less than fifty feet in width, and 
on other lots it would have to be twenty-four feet deep. Hence 
there are practically no interior yards. In effect they have been out- 
lawed. In the six half-blocks examined there are forty-one such 
spaces; ten of them less than 7.5 feet in depth; nineteen from 7.5 
to 12; eleven from 12 to 24; one 25 feet. 

By side court is meant the space at the side of a house, if such 
space extends fully from the front to the rear of the house. The 
widths found in the side courts are shown in the following state- 
ment. There is no reference in it to any other walls than those 
which contain windows to living rooms. The distance of such 
walls to the opposite side lot line is as follows : 

on the lot line 12 walls 

less than a foot 18 " 

1 to 2 feet 31 " 

2 feet to 2.7 feet 35 " 
2.8 feet to 4 feet 30 " 

These figures should be related with the commonly accepted prin- 
ciple that in the matter of light every house should be entirely in- 
dependent of adjoining lots. 

An outer court is the open space at the side of the house that 
does not extend through for the full depth of the house. In the 
six half-blocks examined, among five such spaces located on the lot 
line, one is 2.7 feet wide; the others four feet or more. Outer courts 
between the wings of a house ought to be at least 8 feet wide. 



HOUSING 131 

Among ten such courts nine have a width less than eight feet 

and serve altogether sixty-seven living rooms. The following are 
the details. 

In Widths Rooms 

One court 6. J feet 6 

Six courts 4 to 6 " 49 

Two " 3.2 " 12 

There are in the two districts houses where 105 living rooms re- 
ceive their light from 18 outer courts in which the widths are less 
than eight feet. All these courts are between the wings of a double 
house. Their widths and the number of living rooms they serve is 
as follows: 

In Widths Rooms 

Seven courts 6 to 8 feet 38 

Seven " 4 to 6 " 43 

Four 4 feet or less 24 

Many of these outer courts contain various encroachments 
such as porches or balconies and several are thus almost completely 
filled. One of the narrowest is entirely roofed over with the boards 
of a clothes-yard. No obstruction of any kind is allowed in Con- 
necticut or in Brooklyn practice. 

Another court not included in those mentioned above is situated 
between wings. A roof covers all of it and stairs and porches oc- 
cupy the greater part of it, but the porches are intermitted at the 
inner end, more than 25 feet from the rear of the building. A 
skylight is placed over this open space, making what might be de- 
scribed as a porch well. Six bed-rooms and water closets are lighted 
from this well, but the amount of light secured in the two lower 
floors is very meager, the bed-rooms having almost no light. 

An inner court is open space that is wholly surrounded by 
a house, or is bounded on three sides by the same house, and on the 
fourth side by a lot line. Two such courts on lot lines serving three 
living-rooms each occur in two four-story houses located in the 
two districts examined. One of these courts is eight feet long, 
where Brooklyn and Connecticut practice would require it to be 
fourteen feet. The other is three feet wide, and 10 feet deep, as 
against a standard of eight feet wide by 14 feet deep. 



1 32 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The American Woolen Company's Houses 

From 1906 to 19 10 the American Woolen Company built in 
South Lawrence houses for 142 families as follows : Twelve one- 
family houses for overseers; fifty-two cottages; forty-two one- 
family, two-story brick houses; six three-story three-family frame 
houses; and three six-family frame houses. All these houses are 
superior to most houses that have been erected by manufacturing 
companies, and they are superior to most of the commercially 
built houses in Lawrence. The most interesting as homes for 
working people are the cottages and the two-story brick houses. 

The following description of the single family brick houses 
is given by the architect who built them, Mr. James E. Allen of 
Lawrence. 

Six buildings erected by the American Woolen Company on 
Market Street, for occupancy by their operatives are perhaps worthy 
of more than passing mention, not that any new type of building 
has been evolved but that an old type, the Philadelphia House so 
called, has been carefully studied., improved as regards the interior 
arrangement of its rooms, and carefully designed as regards its 
exterior with the result that very comfortable, economically ar- 
ranged interiors and particularly pleasing exteriors have been pro- 
duced. 

The lot of land upon which these six buildings were built has 
a street frontage of 475 feet, and is 100 feet in depth, and is sub- 
divided into four parts by three forty-five feet private ways ex- 
tending from the street to the rear of the lot. The buildings are 
fronted upon these private ways which are traversed by eight feet 
walks running the entire length with narrower walks leading to the 
front doors, and the ground areas between these walks are planted 
with shrubbery. The utilization of the land in this way not only 
allowed the erection of two more dwellings than would have been 
possible had the buildings been faced on the street and been built 
in one continuous block of dwellings but also allowed two out of 
every seven dwellings to be of five rooms and with light on three 
sides. Moreover, it greatly added to the appearance of the street 
and buildings and is a plan which might be followed to advantage 



HOUSING 



133 




ONE OF TflE SIX BLOCKS OF SEVEN HOUSES 



on land having a depth of 100 feet or more, because each dwelling 
by such arrangement occupies, including back yards and propor- 
tionate part of the front passageway, an area of about 1130 square 
feet, as against an area of 1400 square feet, if fronted on the street 
on a lot 100 feet deep. 

Each of the buildings is 98 feet, 8 inches long and 39 feet 
wide and contains seven dwellings, each with a frontage of four- 
teen feet, and a depth of thirty-nine feet, two of which contain 
five rooms and five of which contain four rooms, besides front ves- 
tibules, rear entries, bathrooms and all necessary pantry and clothes 
closets. Each of the dwellings is entirely separated from the others 
by a brick partition wall running from cellar bottom to roof and 
each has its independent front and rear entrance and a rear piazza 
6x10 feet, which is arranged within the main walls of the building 
and consequently is included within the size given. Each dwelling 
has also its own small back yard, fenced with a wire fence four feet 
high. 

The plumbing system of one has no connection with that of any 
other dwelling, in order that those unoccupied in cold weather may 
be properly drained and freezing avoided, and a separate water 
meter is provided for each tenant in order that water waste may be 
properly traced and corrected. 



i 3 4 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The interiors of these houses are quite as unusual to this type 
of house as are the exteriors, the arrangement of the rooms and 
stairway being such that a single stairway is able to serve as both 
front and back stairs and may be approached and entered onto from 
either the living room or the kitchen. 

The first floor of each dwelling is divided into a small front 
vestibule, a moderate sized living room, a generous kitchen together 
with the necessary accompaniments of pantry and dish closets, a 
back entry of sufficient size to accommodate a refrigerator and the 
cosy recessed piazza before mentioned. 

The second floor is utilized for bed rooms and bath room, 
three bed rooms in the five room dwellings and two in the four room 
dwellings, the bath room being so located that a register in the 
kitchen ceiling provides the necessary heat in cold weather. 

Throughout the buildings the window and door openings have 
been placed so as to preserve the greatest amount of unbroken wall 
space and in each dwelling one of the bed rooms has been made of 
sufficient size to accommodate two beds, thus small houses by skillful 
planning have been made comfortable quarters for reasonably large 
families. 

The buildings are built of common red bricks laid to easy joints 
in white mortar, all stone trimmings are of white marble with tooled 
surfaces and all wood trimmings including the sash are painted 
white. The color combination of the red bricks with the white 
stone and wood trimming, taken together with the refinement of 
detail in the design of these buildings, their unusual arrangement 
on the lot, the avoidance of monotony by harmonious diversity of 
exterior treatment of the buildings, which are all of the same floor 
arrangement tend to make them much more attractive in appearance 
than is the case with most buildings of this type. 

While by " rule of thumb " figuring of the " quick return " 
speculator it does not seem possible to erect such buildings as these 
to compete, on an investment basis, with the larger three and four 
storied frame tenement block or even the so called " Three Deckers " 
both with their common halls and stairways and other undesirable 
features, it is believed that the net returns from such buildings 
covering a period of twenty years with their obvious smaller repair 
bills and less loss of rent by reason of empties will compare very 



HOUSING 135 

favorably with that from the undesirable class of building above 
mentioned. 

The following description of the cottages was furnished by 
the architect who built them, Mr. Perley F. Gilbert of Lowell and 
Andover. 

The fifty-two cottages are one and one-half story, six room 
cottages, covering a ground area of from 576 to 721 square feet, 
exclusive of the piazzas and steps. Four of these, however, are 
practically two stories high. 

They can be built for a sum ranging between $2100 and $2475, 
according to the number of buildings erected at one time and to the 
particular types of cottages used. 

Arranged on the first floor of each cottage is a cosy staircase 
hall having a large hall closet, a living-room, dining-room, kitchen, 
pantry, china-cupboard, and a large back entry with space for ice 
box and storage. On the second floor are the three chambers and 
a bath-room, all connected by a well lighted hall and in the attic 
there is a place for storage entered by means of a trap door in the 
ceiling of the second story hall. All of the bed-rooms are well 
ventilated, having windows on two sides of the room. The closets 
are very spacious in proportion to the size of the buildings, there 
being four in every house and five in the majority of them. Pro- 
vision is made so that all of the first story rooms and two or three 
of the chambers may be heated with stoves, and there are floor 
registers over the kitchen and dining-room stoves for conveying 
warm air to one or two chambers and the bath-room above. 

The clear height of the basement is seven feet, of the first, and 
second stories about eight feet. 

Outside there is considerable individuality, for to each type of 
plan there are many variations in the exterior designs : the gambrel 
roofs and shingled walls predominating, although there are some 
hipped and pitched roofs and a very few clapboarded walls to be 
seen. A comfortable and inviting porch may be found on every 
house, in fact, every building was designed to secure an attractive 
exterior and interior also and to give to the tenant a neat little 
home in very many ways superior to the ordinary run of cottage 
tenement and yet within reasonable cost limits. 



136 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The prices stated include the following items for each cottage, 
viz : — Setting the batters ; the excavation of the cellar under the 
whole of the building; foundation-work; cemented floor, coal bin, 
vegetable closet and bulkhead in cellar; sewer connections; car- 
penter-work; brick-work; plastering; clothes posts in yard; hard- 
ware; open plumbing, including sink in pantry, also a water-closet, 
lavatory and bath tub in bath-room, supplied throughout with hot 
and cold water; gas piping and gas fixtures; painting; wall paper 
and picture moulding in every room except that the walls of pantry, 
bath-room and kitchen are painted; plate-rail in dining-room; fly- 
screens and window shades throughout. 

Notes Concerning Figures and Methods 

The Figures for New Houses 

The records of the office of Building Inspector begin June i, 1906, and 
were examined to the date June 30, 1911. The statistics in the yearly- 
reports of this office give the houses for which permits were issued. This 
is the practice in most cities, but such practice always includes figures 
concerning a considerable number of houses that are never built. Such 
houses are not included in the statement in the first pages of this report. 

The figures for new houses, however, do not indicate quite all the 
tenements which are constructed each year; for old houses are constantly 
being enlarged. One very common form of alteration is the change of a 
pitch roof to a flat roof, and one or two tenements are thereby added in 
each house, and frequently the house is brought thus from the two tenement 
class into the three tenement. The number of tenements which have been 
constructed by additions and alterations as shown in the yearly reports 
of the building inspector for four and one half years is 283. Alterations 
which have involved very extensive changes have been regarded by the 
building inspector as new buildings, and have been so recorded. 

The House Census 

Unlike other cities in New England three or four of the water power 
cities are laid out with alleys. Lawrence's alleys occur chiefly at the center. 
For convenience in 'this report the word " block " has been used to mean 
the city square surrounded by streets, and "half-block" is given the arbi- 
trary meaning, any sub-division of a block made by an alley. One blank 
census form for each half-block or block was set up from the Sanborn 
insurance map for the most of the city, and from the Richards' atlas for 
•the rest. The filling of the forms in the field, verified and enlarged the 
facts shown upon the maps. The most general summary concerning the 
distribution of apartments has already been given on page 33. It shows 
that in the central district the density of apartments is about four and one- 
half times the density in the rest of North Lawrence, and more than twelve 
times the density in South Lawrence. 

Block and District Examination 

Besides the house census, including the study of 300 central acres, 
the other three methods followed were: a complete investigation of certain 



HOUSING 137 

half-blocks, a special examination of two large districts, and an examination 
of recently built houses with a study of new building statistics. In the 
investigation of the half blocks a 5 in. by 8 in. card form covering about 
two hundred items was applied to each house; another card form was 
filled out for each apartment; and a lot occupancy form was used in measur- 
ing and making sketches of the lot and house dimensions found at each 
premise. In the district examination every house was viewed, and a form 
rilled out for each large house. 

Density of Population in Six Half-Blocks 

In filling out the apartment cards for the six half-blocks examined a 
census was taken of the number of persons living in each apartment. For 
this purpose an interpreter was used in the Common Street blocks, and 
in a few of the apartments on Oak Street. From the data it is possible 
to study the density of population in the six half-blocks as it existed in 
the spring of 1911. 

In the spring of 191 1 the number of vacant tenements was unusually 
large, the mills were running on part time, rents in several apartments were 
said to be twenty-five and fifty cents a week lower than formerly, and ex- 
pressions concerning poor business were common. So that an estimate 
of the probable density at times when there is regular employment, is not 
without value. Computing such density on the basis that half the apart- 
ments found vacant would in other seasons be occupied, at the same rate 
as the other apartments in the same block, the figures secured are those in 
the second column on page 60. 

Density in Two Districts 

The following statement refers to the table given on page 60, and the 
districts mentioned on page 87. 

Including one half the surrounding street space, the area for the fourth 
half-block is slightly less than an acre, and for each of the others between 
one and two acres. It is not possible to secure from the 1910 census the 
necessary figures for a comparison of all the foregoing densities with 
those of adjacent larger districts. There are, however, available figures 
for two districts in which two of these half-blocks occur. One district 
lies between Hampshire and Franklin streets, the alley south of Common 
Street and Bradford Street. It contains fourteen and nine-tenths acres, 
and includes half-block number three. The average density of population 
in this district is 216 per acre to be compared with 327 in the half-block. 
The other district lies between Hampshire and Lawrence, Oak and Chestnut 
streets. It contains 17.3 acres and includes half-block number five. Here 
the average density of population is 214 per acre to be compared with 287 
in the half-block. 

Density in the Central District 

The figure 33,700 elsewhere given for 300 acres is chiefly the actual 
count made in the federal census. But a few of the census enumeration 
districts are split by the boundaries of the central district, and for those 
areas the number of apartments, as secured in the house census examina- 
tion, was applied to the average size of family in that district. This 
method yielded the total, 33,760. 

Four-Story Frame Houses 

The figures given for the cities of Massachusetts in the first pages of 
the report are not on record in the various cities or anywhere. They were 
secured from the Sanborn insurance maps; the first count was verified; and 
the number that has been given is the multiple of five next above the count. 



138 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Definition of House 

House, lot, apartment, family, living-room, these most common of 
words that appear so constantly in all building regulations and statistics 
are never given any definition in the law; yet, on the content of the word 
both statistics and the administration of the law seriously depend in 
hundreds of cases. They are a fair example of the inexact and unscientific 
basis on which many laws are drawn. The inexactness gives opportunity 
for favoritism in the administration of the law and it vitiates comparative 
statistics. 

The ordinary meaning of the word house is of no use in dealing with 
long rows of houses of the form that exists exclusively in Manhattan and 
is found almost exclusively in Brooklyn and Philadelphia. There the 
subdivision of blocks into houses is not always easy, but it is much easier 
than it is in some cities where, as in Lawrence, the so-called semi- 
detached, attached and detached houses are found mingled promiscuously 
in all sorts of relation to each other, to the street, to the lot and to the 
fact of ownership. In the administration of a law it is unavoidable that 
values be assigned to the separating and unifying facts, interior common 
use, exterior common use, common ownership, marketable unit and others. 
Such values must be balanced off against each other as they exist in 
various combinations at given premises. 

In a house census no extended inquiry at each premise is feasible. The 
structure must be classified quickly. To accomplish this in the Lawrence 
census it was necessary to consider the so-called double house as one house. 
Hence the definitions that are found below were given to the young men 
who did the work. 

The number of double houses, as thus defined, are: 

,678 double houses which contain 2432 apartments, 

259 are two-family houses. 

213 are four-family houses 

104 are six-family houses 

102 are in various combinations, 2 and 1, etc., up to 4 and 4. 

The definitions that were given in the instructions for the census were: 

HOUSE: Four outside walls with not more than one party wall. 

(Four outside walls with more than one party wall is to 
be regarded as a group of houses, each house being the space 
between the party walls. If in some peculiar arrangement there 
seems to be good reason for making an exception in this method 
of classification, the reason should be discussed at the office. 

PARTY WALL: Query: Do the tenants on either side of the tvall use in common 
any stairs or halls or parts of them? If the answer is negative the wall 
is to be regarded as party wall. 

(For the purpose of this classification balconies or porches 
need not be considered. Porches connected by stairs are 
sufficiently covered in the question. The direction of the wall 
is of no moment. The idea of marketable unit is ignored. 
Emergency use, as fire egress, is not to be considered.) 



HOUSE CENSUS 

(April, 191 1 ) 



NUMBER OF HOUSES CLASSIFIED BY MATERIALS AND 
BY LOCATION FRONT AND REAR 



WOOD , MISCELLANEOUS 



SFC 


NORTH LAWRENCE 


Front 


Rear 


Total 


BRICK 


Front 


Rear 


Total 


A 
B 
C 
D 


West of R. R. Tracks . . 
R. R. Tracks to Lawrence St. 
Lawrence to Prospect 
East of Prospect St. . . . 


1272 

2021 

1494 

700 


152 
308 
206 

34 


1424 

2329 
1700 

734 


3 

39 

134 

3 


2 
3 


1 


3 

1 
4 




Total for North Lawrence, . 


5487 


700 


6187 


179 


5 


3 


8 



SOUTH LAWRENCE 

E West of Southern Div. 

R. R. Tracks 408 53 461 2 

F Southern Div. to Western Div. 360 13 373 1 

G East of Western Div. . . 894 53 947 44 

Total for South Lawrence, . 1662 119 1781 47 

Total for Lawrence, . . 7149 819 7968 226 



SUMMARY OF TOTALS 

Wood, 7968 

Brick, 226 

Miscellaneous, .... 8 



(A table classifying the houses by height in stories appears on page 48.) 



140 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

SUMMARY OF NUMBER OF APARTMENTS 



2606 


279 


2885 


5366 


784 


6150 


3844 


517 


43 61 


1 146 


5 2 


1 198 



NORTH LAWRENCE Front Rear Total 

SEC. 

A West of R. R. Tracks 

B R. R. Tracks to Lawrence St. 

C Lawrence to Prospect 

D East of Prospect St. .... 

Total for North Lawrence . . 12962 1632 14594 



SOUTH LAWRENCE 

E West of Southern Div. R. R. Tracks 
F Southern Div. to Western Div. 
G East of Western Div. 

Total for South Lawrence 

Total for Lawrence 



THE TOTAL NUMBER OF APARTMENTS 



756 


67 


823 


595 


20 


615 


1854 


102 


1956 


3205 


189 


3394 


1 61 67 


1821 


17988 



Totals 



In houses of one and In houses of three In houses of more than 

two apartments apartments three apartments 

North Lawrence, . 6528 3360 4706 *4>594 (81%) 

South Lawrence, . 2071 696 627 3>394 ( T 9%) 



Totals, . . 8599(48%) 4056(22%) 5333(30%) 17,988(100%) 



TOTAL NUMBER OF REAR HOUSES AND APARTMENTS 





Number of 
Houses Apartments 


Average Number of 
apartments per house 


North Lawrence, 


703 1632 


2 -3 


South Lawrence, 


119 189 


1.6 



Total for Lawrence, 822 1821 



HOUSE CENSUS 

BUILDING INSPECTOR'S RECORD 

(June i, 1906, to June 30, 191 1) 



141 



NUMBER OF HOUSES BUILT, CLASSIFIED BY 
HEIGHT IN STORIES 









HEIGHT BY STORIES 




Year 


One 


One and 
one-half 


Two 


Two and 
one-half 


Three 


Fou 


1906 (7 months) 




5 




44 


37 


6 


1907 .... 




4 




49 


96 


25 


1908 .... 




12 


3 


48 


64 


7 


1909 .... 


1 


56 




100 


140 


38 


1910 .... 




39 




73 


ior 


16 


1911 (6 months) • 


1 


7 


22 


!5 


35 


7 



Five 



Total (5 years, 1 month) 



123 



25 



3 2 9 



473 



99 



NUMBER OF HOUSES BUILT, CLASSIFIED BY MATERIALS 



Year 

1906 (7 months) 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

191 1 (6 months) 



Total (5 years, 1 month) 



Wood 


Brick 


Miscellaneous 


9r 


1 




. 166 


8 




• 135 







• 333 


1 


I 


226 


1 


2 


86 


1 





1037 



NUMBER OF APARTMENTS IN HOUSES CONSTRUCTED 
FROM JUNE 1, 1906 TO JUNE 30, 1911 



165 Apartmen 


ts in 165 


Houses of 


One Apartment each 


570 


« 285 


u 


Two 


" 


335 


" 445 


<« 


Three 


" 


188 


" 47 


" 


Four 


" 


15 


3 


(< 


Five 


" 


384 


" 64 


" 


Six 


" 


84 


" 12 


" 


Seven 


" 


112 " 


" 14 


" 


Eight 


tt 


210 " 


" T 7 


" 


more than 


eight apartments each 



3063 Apartments in 1052 Houses 



142 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



EXAMINATION OF SIX HALF-BLOCKS 

(April, 191 1 ) 



SUMMARY OF RENTS 



Common St. (south side) 

East from Newbury (C11K) 
West " " (C12K) 

Valley St. (south side) 

East from Franklin (B16K) 
West " " (B17K) 

Oak St. (north side) 

West from White (B43L) 

Oxford St. (west side) 

North from Essex (A52M) 



IN OCCUPIED APARTMENTS 

Annual Rent for 
No. of Sq. Ft. in Lots Occupied Apartments 
Occupied by Houses y, 1 



3533S 
45.425 

44,412 
26,784 

5 2 '703 
33,600 



$17,488. 
17,774- 

12,078. 
6,587. 

12,606. 

8,447. 



Average 
per Sq. Ft. 



•39 1 

.272 
.245 

•239 
.251 



ESTIMATE OF THE TOTAL RENTS 





Annual Rent for 




Annual Rent for 


Common St. (south side) 


Occupied Apartments 1 

Stores at Apt. Rate 

Total Avg. per Sq. 


and 

Ft. 


Occupied Apartments, Vacant 

Apartments and Stores 

Total Avg. per Sq. Ft. 


East from Newbury (C11K) 


$20,270. 


.565 




$22,285. 




.621 


West " " (C12K) 


24,027. 


•529 




25,821. 




.568 


Valley St. (south side) 














East from Franklin (B16K) 


15,042. 


.338 




16,251. 




.366 


West " " (B17K) 


8,095. 


.302 




8,758. 




•327 


Oak St. (north side) 














West from White, (B43L) 


14,388. 


•273 




15,584. 




•295 


Oxford St. (west side) 














North from Essex (A52M) 


9,279. 


.276 




10,805. 




.321 



(A table summarizing rates of rent per room per week appears on page 60b. Also 
the percentage of lot occupied by houses.) 



HOUSE CENSUS 143 

THE EXTENT OF CROWDING IN APARTMENTS 





More than two persons per room 






More than one family 






excluding the kitchen 






in each apartment 




No 


.of No. of persons 


No. 


of 


No. of persons 




A F 


>ts.* in the Apts.* 


Apts* 


in the Apts .* 


Common St. . 


117 


60% [160 73% 


120 


61% 


1 1 52 72% 


Valley St. 


40 


28% 348 40% 


22 


15% 


183 21% 


Oak St. . 


26 


27% 202 2,7% 


21 


22% 


148 27% 


Oxford St. . 




19 

Three and more in 
each room 


7 




More than two families 
in each apartment 




Apts. Persons 






Apts. Persons 


Oak St. . 


6 


6% 48 










Common St. . 


4it 


21% 460 29% 


42t 


21% 


460 29% 


Oxford St. 
















Valley St. 


10 


7% 102 


2 




23 



* Percentages for all the apartments examined on the street named. 

t Only 15 apartments are in both, i. e., 15 apartments have more than two families, 
and an average of three or more per room. 



BOARDING AND LODGING HOUSES 



The Number in the City . 139 

Under State Inspection 60 

Not under State Inspection 79 



THE SOURCES OF FIGURES AND QUOTATIONS 
RELATIVE TO HOUSING CONDITIONS 

Page 

35 ff. The facts concerning fire loss: 

Proceedings of the Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters (pp. 69, 70) 
May 11, 191 1. 

Conservation of Utilized Resources from Destruction 
by Fire, 1910, (pp. 5, 6). 

Address of the President of the National Board of 
Fire Underwriters of the Forty-fifth Annual 
Meeting, May 11, 191 1. 

36 The Survey, July 1st, 191 1, " Fire Waste," Powell Evans. 

40 Pamphlet, " Individual Fire Fighting," Pub. by Rochester, 

N. Y. Chamber of Commerce. 

44 ff. Facts concerning Chelsea : 

Quarterly of the National Fire Protection Association, 
July, 1908: " Chelsea Conflagration," (pp. 25-35). 

46 Editorial in the New York World, October, 191 1. 

49 The Population of Massachusetts in 19 10: Pamphlet 

issued by Mass. Bureau of Statistics. Pub. 191 1. 

118 Speech of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge in New York, 

December 22, ii 



The facts concerning early houses were secured from Charles 
H. Littlefield, Secretary of the Board of Trade, Arthur D. Marble, 
City Engineer, J. J. Carey, Building Inspector, Oswald J. Culling- 
ton, Plumbing Inspector, and R. A. Hale of the Essex Co. 

The sketches, maps and tables were made with the assistance 
of George W. Hinchcliffe. 



PUBLIC HEALTH 

By 

FRANK B. SANBORN 



PUBLIC HEALTH 



This investigation of Public Health conditions has comprised 
chiefly three phases: (i) The healthfulness of the Water Supply; 

(2) The present methods of Sewage and Waste Disposal; and 

(3) The Milk Supply and its relation to Public Health. The 
investigation began in the spring of 191 1 and continued through 
the fall. During the summer special attention was given by myself 
and two or more assistants to a personal examination of existing 
conditions; and these conditions, accompanied by certain recom- 
mendations, are discussed fully in the report, but for the con- 
venience of those who may not wish to read the whole report, a 
summary of the essential points will be given in the paragraphs 
that immediately follow : 



Conclusions — Stated Briefly. — 

1. The Water Supply is ample in amount for present 
needs and after filtration is of a quality that is favor- 
able to good public health. 

2. The Sewage and Garbage Disposal methods are 
passable from the public health viewpoint, but in- 
volve important engineering features which need 
attention. 

3. The Milk Supply I have found to have been neglected 
and I believe that it needs material improvements in 
the interest of Public Health. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 

The importance of the Milk Supply as affecting the general 
conditions of Public Health, the lack of supervision at present, 
and the great advantages that all classes of population would 
derive by improvements, have caused me to give attention par- 
ticularly to an investigation of the Milk question. 

I have found that much of the milk that is sold in Lawrence 
is produced under conditions which expose it to serious con- 
tamination; there is little or no supervision or inspection from the 
time it is produced until it is consumed; the City has been giving 
practically no attention to the milk supply; licenses to sell milk 
have been only partially required; there has been no list of milk 
producers or contractors; few citizens know where the milk they 
drink comes from, in fact the milk dealer is the only one who is 
likely to know. 

Epidemics in Lawrence have rarely been traced directly to 
milk, but serious epidemics have occurred in other cities when the 
milk supply has been neglected and such epidemics may at any time 
occur in Lawrence. 

Summary of Recommendations: 

For improving the milk supply certain recommendations are 
offered of which the following are general summaries : — 

To classify the milk there shall be three grades : 
i. Certified Milk which shall be milk of distinctly superior 
quality; produced from tuberculin-tested cows on the best of 
farms scoring 90 or above out of a possible 100, (according 
to the method of scoring to be later described). It shall be 
certified by a proper medical commission as required by the 
existing state law; and the milk shall have a bacterial count 
at the time of delivery in the city, of 10,000 or less per cubic 
centimeter. Such milk would sell at a price of fifteen to 
eighteen cents a quart. 
2. Inspected Milk Heated which shall be milk produced on farms 
better than the ordinary and under clean conditions. Such 



THE MILK SUPPLY 149 

farms should score sixty-five or more, and the milk at the 
time of leaving the farm should not contain over 100,000 
bacteria per cubic centimeter. Before delivery to consumers 
the milk should be further safeguarded against infectious 
diseases by being brought to a temperature of 145 Fahrenheit, 
held at that temperature for twenty minutes, then suddenly 
cooled to 40 F., and should be kept at about that temperature 
until it is used by the consumers. The price of this milk in 
Lawrence would be nine to ten cents a quart. 
3. Market Milk Heated which shall include common milk — 
four-fifths of the total supply — produced on farms of fairly 
acceptable quality, but many of which are trying to produce 
large quantities with no special attention to quality. Milk from 
sick cows, or from dirty farms produced under conditions that 
are dangerous to good health, should not be admitted to the 
City. Every farm should show a score of at least 40 points 
out of a possible 100, and a bacterial count of 500,000 or less. 
All of the milk included in this class should without exception 
be heated to 145 F. for twenty minutes and suddenly cooled 
to 40 before it is delivered to consumers. 

Furthermore, the people should have opportunity of knowing 
what grade of milk they are buying, and for that reason every can 
or bottle should be labeled in a manner similar to the requirements 
of pure food laws as Certified Milk, Inspected Milk Heated, 
or Market Milk Heated. 

Besides a reasonable inspection of farms and dairies, the 
twenty or more bottling plans about the City should be examined, 
and their managers advised as to improvements. The sanitary 
conditions of the bottling plants are of equal or greater importance 
than that of milk farms. The City authorities could well maintain 
general supervision of dairies and bottling plants, inspect them and 
make laboratory tests of samples of milk, and then in fairness to 
all make public the results of these inspections and tests. Thus the 
people would be able to select the best supplies and the farmer, or 
milkman, could find a market in accordance with the quality of 
milk offered for sale. 



1 5 o LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Finally, as a recommendation of great importance — second 
only to that of heating or pasteurizing — I suggest the formation 
of a business organization of producers, or dealers. The special 
object of this organization would be to centralize; to have one 
central plant for receiving, purifying and safeguarding the milk, 
and, in due course, delivering it to consumers, all more thoroughly 
and systematically than can be done by a dozen small dealers 
handicapped as at present. 

These constitute the principal recommendations of the report, 
but to understand rightly the reasons for them it is necessary to 
have in mind some of the conditions that exist and the relation 
that these conditions bear to Public Health. 

The Relation of Milk to Public Health : — 

The necessity of having safe drinking water, which has been 
notably demonstrated in the past history of Lawrence, is now 
accepted without question by the public at large. Less general, 
however, is perception of the fact that milk is hardly second to 
water as a means of spreading disease through a community when 
once the milk supply becomes infected with the organisms of disease. 

That milk does offer such an avenue to infection; and that 
the possibility of infection, and hence of serious epidemics, is 
peculiarly great in a city which receives its milk from a great 
variety of sources, has been abundantly demonstrated. 

In Washington, D. C, about ten per cent of the cases of 
typhoid fever can be traced to milk. Attleboro, Massachusetts, 
with its population of 16,400, had forty-six cases of typhoid during 
last August and September, that were caused by typhoid from 
one farm. 

In 1901 Schiider of Germany tabulated 650 typhoid epidemics; 
of these the supposed causes of 462 were reported as spread by 
water; no by milk and 78 by all other means. In Massachusetts 
Dr. Harrington reported that in two years, out of eighteen local 
outbreaks of typhoid fever, fourteen were traced to milk. Stam- 
ford, Connecticut, a town of 15,000 population, had 160 positive 
cases of typhoid and twenty-four suspicious cases in a period of 



THE MILK SUPPLY 151 

nine days. One hundred and forty-seven of the cases received 
milk from one dairyman. The epidemic continued until there were 
386 cases. 

Although the medical profession has yet been unable to deter- 
mine the specific organism that causes scarlet fever, ample proof 
has developed showing that the disease is frequently transmitted 
by the medium of milk. Dr. Trask has compiled a list of fifty-one 
epidemics of scarlet fever as spread by milk, twenty-five in the 
United States and twenty-six in Great Britain. In Boston, Cam- 
bridge and Somerville, Massachusetts, an epidemic of scarlet fever 
occurred in 1907 which comprised 717 cases, and 85 per cent of 
the cases were found to be supplied by milk from one dealer. 

Diphtheria is known to be spread by milk. Dr. Trask has 
reported that twenty-three epidemics from 1895 to 1907 have been 
traced to milk — fifteen occurred in the United States and eight 
in Great Britain. 

Also a few epidemics of sore throat have occurred in Great 
Britain that were traced to milk, and during the past year one 
developed in Boston, Cambridge, and Brookline that was most 
virulent and alarming. In a period of a few weeks there were in 
these three localities 1043 cases of tonsilitis and sore throat. 
Among children the disease was mild, but among middle-aged 
persons it was severe; forty-eight deaths are known to have resulted 
from these cases. Many physicians at first attributed the sickness 
to " dust in the air," or " influenza " and pronounced as absurd the 
report that milk was the cause. A thorough investigation, how- 
ever, has established the fact that a majority of all the cases 
indisputably came from one milk supply. 

When milk is infected at only one milking the epidemic may 
be confined to a few cases, but when the milk is infected day after 
day, the outbreak will be prolonged, increasing in broadening 
circles. A milk epidemic is therefore typical in its onset. If cases 
are promptly reported, classified, and their origin traced, an 
epidemic can be stopped at the beginning. Furthermore, a practical 
way to prevent such epidemics would appear to be some form of 
heating, or sterilizing, the milk. 



152 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The relation of milk to public health begins on the farm at the 
time of milking and continues through the dairy, the bottling, the 
transportation, delivery to the consumers, and handling in the 
household. It is a long and circuitous route open to contamination 
at many points. That Lawrence has so far escaped serious 
epidemics by infected milk is good reason for expecting one at the 
present time. Furthermore, it is reasonable to assume that an 
increase in sickness and death by epidemics or otherwise is more 
liable to occur from dirty milk than from clean milk. 

It may be of interest, then, for the reader to ascertain where 
the milk that is sold in Lawrence is produced, and the character 
of some of the farms that supply the milk. 

Where the milk that is sold in Lawrence 

is PRODUCED. 

As an indication of the chaotic condition which prevails in 
regard to the milk supply of Lawrence, it is worth recording that, 
when this study was begun, it was found that the City Board of 
Health could not supply a list of licensed dealers who were selling 
milk in the city nor of the farms from which the dealers drew 
their supplies. The only city list available contained no names of 
dealers who had taken out milk licenses either in 191 1 or in 19 10. 
For 1909, there was an incomplete record extending from January 
to August. During this period of seven months, Dr. Thomas H. 
Collins had been acting as Milk Inspector; and records, which at 
the beginning of his term had been fairly satisfactory, gradually 
declined until for the past year and a half no official records were 
made of any licenses. For 1908, while Eugene A. McCarthy was 
inspector, a fairly complete list was kept, which, although three 
years out of date, appeared to be the best means available for 
ascertaining the present dealers. 

As shown by the map on next page, nearly all milk is from 
the north, and one-fourth of it comes from Maine and Vermont 
towns 150 to 200 miles away. Very little milk comes from the 
South of Lawrence. The total milk supply of Lawrence, amounts 
to about 24,000 quarts. There are three main sources : — 






jniiiwiiwimj/i 





MILK r/7/eA/S NEAR LAWRENCE 

*,«,„ • ^^^""LOC/ITIONancf QUARTS PRODUCED DAILY 
X, Prepared for- 

Daniel J. Donovan , I OO Qrs. 

9 rs oaily /Report on /ni/esfigaT/or? 

Z R \\^ of 

C HEALTH 



•G.Af Cai-te.r 
/oo 



\j°UBLI 

*l Nfm* Sca/e /inch m 



• W.J Clmr* 
40 



eo 

•r e Llv.njjfont 



9yiauPoft (p. 0OAAArtn*iS:C. 




■ . 



. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 153 

1. The H. P. Hood & Sons milk, amounting to about 3,500 
quarts, comes from two general sources, — the Vermont supply, 
which totals about 2550 quarts, and which is collected by a daily 
milk car running south on the railroad from Newport, Vt. ; and 
the farms of Londonderry, Hudson, and Windham, N. H., amount- 
ing to about 950 quarts. All this milk goes to Derry, N. H., and 
the supply for Lawrence is pasteurized and part of it bottled for 
shipment. 

2. The Supply from Maine, consisting of approximately 
4000 quarts of milk, is collected from about ten towns by the 
Turner Center Dairying Association. The milk is shipped first 
to Auburn, Maine, where it is pasteurized, then separated into 
cream and skim milk and afterwards shipped to Lawrence. 

3. The supply that comes from nearby farms within a radius 
of ten miles, amounts to nearly 16,000 quarts or two-thirds of the 
total supply. 

Included in the above three sources of supply are 600 farms 
that send milk to Lawrence. 

Inspection of dairies : — 

Of these farms 150 are near the City; and the map on pre- 
ceding page shows their location, gives the name of the owner or 
lessee, and the quarts of milk produced daily. 

In order to determine the quality of dairies thus located near 
Lawrence all that are shown on the preceding chart (150 in 
number) have been inspected and rated according to a score- 
sheet tkat was especially prepared for this investigation and is 
shown on the next two pages. 

The values assigned to the various items that go to make up 
the score of Equipment and Method of this sheet, are values 
recommended by the United States government and the Official 
Dairy Inspectors' Association. It will be noted that perfect condi- 
tions would mean a score of forty points for Equipment and sixty 
points for Method. 

One advantage of this form of score card is found in the 
fact that an untrained person can use it with fairly satisfactory 



DAIRY INSPECTION OF LAWRENCE MILK SUPPLY 

One copy of this report is sent to the Owner, or Lessee of Dairy ; one to the Milk Contractor ; and one copy is kept on file. 



OWNER, or LESSEE, of Farm. Dairy No. 

TOWN OF STATE OF Date 

Quantity of milk : 

Produced here quarts per day. Number of cows ; number milking. 



Receive about quarts per day from dairy of 

Shipment: 

Milk is taken from this dairy by teams of. ; about a.m. p.m. ; delivered at 

station usually about a.m. p.m. ; shipped to Lawrence 

by railroad, electrics, team ; reaches there about a.m. p.m., and is 

delivered to consumers about a.m. p.m. 

Milk shipped includes : Night of day of shipment Yes, No ; morning of day of 

shipment ; night of day before shipment ; morning of day before 

Exposure of milk to contamination: 

Water supply is from open well, covered well, spring, pond Supply likely to be contaminated. 

Privy vaults protected against flies. 

Any case of typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, tonsilitis at 

this farm? What cases during the past year? 



Milk Cooling : 

Milk is cooled by placing closed cans in brook, well, spring, tank 

Temperature of water at date Ice is used for cooling during months 

of Ice on hand sufficient for present season. 

Other method of cooling is 

Inspector's recommendations : 

Minor improvements suggested 

Important improvements especially recommended 



Inspector interviewed at dairy. owner, lessee, laborer. 

Sketch or photo of dairy and surroundings : 



DAIRY INSPECTION — SCORE CARD 

Approved by the United States Government and by the Official Dairy Instructors' Association 



EQUIPMENT 



COWS 
Health : 

Apparently in good health 

If tested with tuberculin once a year 
and no tuberculosis is found, or if 
tested once in six months and all 
reacting animals removed 

(If tested only once a year and react- 
ing animals found and removed, 2.) 
Comfort : 

Bedding 

Temperature of stable 

Food (clean and wholesome) 

Water : 

Clean and fresh 

Convenient and abundant 



STABLES 

Location of stable : 

Well drained 

Free from contaminating surround- 
ings 

Construction of stable : 

Tight, sound floor and proper gut- 
ter 

Smooth, tight walls and ceiling... 

Proper stall, tie, and manger 

Means of light : Four sq. ft. of glass 
per cow 

(Three sq. ft., 3 ; two sq. ft., 2 ; one 
sq. ft., 1. Deduct for uneven 
distribution.) 

Ventilation: Automatic system 



(Adjustable windows, 1.) 

Cubic feet of space for cow : 500 to 

1000 feet 

(Less than 500 feet, 2 ; less than 400 

feet, 1 ; less than 300 feet, ; over 

1000 feet, 0.) 

UTENSILS 

Construction and condition of uten- 
sils 

Water for cleaning 

(Clean, convenient, and abundant.) 

Small-top milking pail 

Facilities for hot water or steam 

(Should be in milk house, not in 
kitchen.) 

Milk cooler 

Clean milking suits 

MILK ROOM 
Location of milk room : 

Free from contaminating surround- 
ings 

Convenient 

Construction of milk room : 

Floor, walls, and ceiling 

Light, ventilation, screens 



Score for equipment. 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



40 



METHOD 



COWS 

Cleanliness of cows 

STABLES 

Cleanliness of stables : 

Floor 

Walls 

Ceiling and ledges 

Mangers and partitions 

Windows 

Stable air at milking time : 

Freedom from dust 

Freedom from odors 

Barnyard clean and well drained 

Removal of manure daily to field or 

proper pit 



(To 50 feet from stable, 1.) 
MILK ROOM 
Cleanliness of milk room ... 



UTENSILS AND MILKING 
Care and cleanliness of utensils: 

Thoroughly washed 

Sterilized in live steam for 30 
minutes 

(Placed over steam jet, or thor- 
oughly scalded with boiling water, 2.) 

Inverted in pure air 

Cleanliness of milking: 

Clean, dry hands 

Udders washed and dried 

(Udders cleaned with moist cloth, 
4 ; cleaned with dry cloth at least 15 
minutes before milking, 1.) 

HANDLING THE MILK 

Cleanliness of attendants in milk room 
Milk removed immediately from 

stable 

Prompt cooling (cooled immediately 

after milking each cow) 

Efficient cooling ; below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 60°, 2.) 
Storage; below 50° F 

(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1.) 
Transportation ; iced in summer 

(For jacket or wet blanket, allow 
2 ; dry blanket or covered wagon, 1.) 



Read your score card 
carefully and improve 
where score is low 



Score for method 



SCORE 



Perfect Allowed 



60 



Score for equipment of plus score for method of equals Total Score 

NOTE 1.— If any filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the total score shall be limited to 49. 

NOTE 2. — If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence of the presence of a dangerous disease in animals or 
attendants, the score shall be 0. 

(Signed) Inspector. 

Inspection sheet prepared by The Lawrence Survey, June, 1911 



156 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

results. It would be possible for a farmer to fill in allowable values 
for the various items that would give him a fair indication of many 
of the good and bad features in his own dairy. 

Some of the items that are listed pertain to the location of the 
dairy, the amount of milk produced, or bought, the water supply 
and method of cooling — all of which is useful information for 
comparing one dairy with another or for tracing a milk epidemic, 
but the principal features that make up the total score pertain to 
elements that may be explained in a general way by describing 
what would be especially required in a dairy that -scored seventy 
points out of a possible one hundred. Such a dairy should have 
a well-lighted stable — preferably four square feet of glass per 
cow — better lighted than a house cellar and about equal to an 
ordinary kitchen; there should be enough cubic feet of space to 
provide the right breathing space for each cow — 500 to 1000 
cubic feet per cow is recommended. Small top milk pails should 
be used. See types shown in photo on page 157. These pails 
exclude a surprising amount of dirt that otherwise drops into the 
milk; with them no cloth strainer is needed while milking. A 
separate room should be provided for milk. This need not be an 
expensive building or room. See photo on page 190, which shows 
a good type of inexpensive milk room. In any dairy, however, of 
first importance is method. First-class cleanliness of cows counts 
eight points out of the 100; of stable, six points; freedom from 
dust and odors, six points; care and cleanliness of milking utensils 
and men engaged in milking, seventeen points; similarly of milk 
room, attendants and methods of handling the milk, nineteen 
points. Thus, by maintaining excellent care and cleanliness, 
it would be possible for even an old and poorly equipped dairy 
to obtain a score of sixty points out of a possible 100. This places 
a premium, as it should, on method rather than on equipment. 



Bull. 56, Hygienic Laboratory. 




TYPES OF MILK PAILS. NARROW-TOP PAILS ARE BEST. 

One copy of the score sheet as made out for each dairy- 
inspected has been furnished to the owner or lessee of the dairy, 
and when there was a milk contractor one copy has been sent to 
him, and one copy of each inspection has been kept on file at the 
office of the Survey. These inspections have all been made by two 
persons, the writer covering thirty dairies, and Mr. G. S. Miller 
120 dairies. In order that our methods might be fairly comparable, 
Mr. Miller at first inspected in company with me, and together we 
compared notes and scores until we were assured that our complete 
scores when added up checked within two per cent. 

At the completion of our inspection of farms on the South 
of the Merrimack a report was sent to each farm indicating the 
averages of all results obtained to that date. Similarly, at the 
completion of all inspections, the following letter was sent to the 
remaining farms : — 

September 15, 191 1 
Dear Sir: 

I am sending to you herewith a copy of the report of 
our inspection of your dairy. You may be interested to compare 
the conditions as indicated by your Score with those that we have 
found in other dairies. For that purpose I am including a summary 
result of all dairies that we have inspected. This includes at least 
four-fifths of all dairies that are located within a radius of fifteen 
miles of Lawrence and which supply milk to this City. 



158 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Number of dairies in all, 148 

Number of dairies supplying directly to consumers, 52 

Number of dairies selling milk to contractors, 96 
Number of dairies out of the 148 that have at least 

4 sq. ft. of glass per cow, 36 or 24.3% 
Number having 500-1000 cu. ft. of space per cow, in 75.0 
Using small top milk pails, 16 10.8 
Washing udders of cows before milking, or wip- 
ing with a moist cloth, 8 5.4 
Cooling milk below 55 F. at date of inspection, 80 54.0 
Using ice for cooling and storage, 84 56.7 
Having a separate milk room that is used for 
washing the utensils, handling the milk and 
storage, 49 33.1 
That remove milk immediately from the stable, 52 35.1 
Average score of the 148 dairies, for equipment 21.2 
Average score of the 148 dairies, for method 32.3 
Average total score, 53.5 
Lowest total score of any dairy, 24.0 
Highest total score of any dairy, 92.5 

A Dairy to be classified as having especially good qualities, 
and able to furnish a superior milk that could be classified as an 
Inspected Milk selling for nine or ten cents a quart, should have 
a Score of at least sixty-five; and if the bottling station is in 
another plant, that also should have a Score of at least sixty-five. 

We expect to publish a list of dairies and bottling stations 
supplying Lawrence that now score sixty or more. Should you 
carry forward improvements which materially change your score, 
please notify us and we will credit the report that we have on file. 

The object of this investigation is to secure an improved 
quality of milk. It is a movement for Clean Milk and a Fair Price 
to the Farmer. May we include your name in a list of those who 
are willing to cooperate in carrying forward such a movement? 

Yours truly, 

FRANK B. SANBORN, Engineer 

Tabulated sheets have been made out showing for each farm 
the general condition of its equipment and method, and the sum 
total of all these sheets has given the following summary results 
for the different towns: — 



THE MILK SUPPLY 159 

Results of dairy inspections of 150 farms, summarized by towns. 





1 


1* 


3 


Is 
= i 


d 

y 


"73 

^0 




"0 «» 

= 1 

^7 CO 

"73 


^ S. 
I" 8 


i s 

«8 O 

< 


« 5 

s ° 
JS 

"° t3 

Z'-B 


c u 
is « 

"8 ~ 

d 
Z 


u 




V 

< 


Andover 


25 


2240 


7.8 


9 


16 


52.0 


Boxford 


8 


745 


8.1 


1 


7 


57-i 


Haverhill 


3 


300 


— 


— 


3 




Lawrence 


1 


150 


— 


1 


— 




Methuen 


47 


7700 


9.2 


27 


20 


55-3 


North Andover 


27 


2560 


7-9 


3 


24 


564 


Pelham, N. H. 


10 


595 


9.2 





10 


43-9 


Salem, N. H. 


20 


1350 


9-4 


11 


9 


52.3 



15640 

Boxford, Methuen and North Andover lead in standards of 
dairies and methods of producing milk. 

Total amount of milk supplied to Lawrence. 

From farms within seven miles of the City, 15,640 quarts daily 

Derry, N. H., and Vicinity, delivered 

by H. P. Hood & Sons, about 965 " 

Vermont and New Hampshire towns 
included between Newport, Vt, 
and Wells River, Vt., also de- 
livered by H. P. Hood & Sons, 2550 " 

Ten towns in Maine located in the 
vicinity of Rumford Falls, and 
delivered by the Turner Center 
Dairying Association, 4000 " " 



23155 
In our inspections we have included farms which deliver some 
milk in Andover, North Andover and Methuen. This amount, how- 
ever, is estimated at less than ten per cent of the total and is 
probably about balanced by farms which have been overlooked. 

Total supply to the city would appear to be approximately 
24,000 quarts daily. 



160 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Total number of farms that send milk to Lawrence. 

Number of farms near Lawrence, 

Determined by field inspections of this Survey, 155 

Around Derry, N. H., 

Reported by H. P. Hood & Sons, and in part verified 

by inspections of farms, 45 

In Vermont (and border towns in New Hampshire) 
Reported by H. P. Hood & Sons, as furnishing the 
milk from which their supply for Lawrence is 
taken, 63 

In Maine, 

Reported by Turner Center Dairying Association, as 
furnishing the milk from which the supply for 
Lawrence is taken, 281 



544 

This list does not include all miscellaneous farms that supply 
small quantities of milk — ten to twenty quarts per day — nor 
those that supply the cream that comes from Boston. 

In all over 600 different farms doubtless send milk to the City. 

Examples of dairies, good and faulty : — 

The statement is often made that dairies which fulfill modern 
sanitary requirements can be maintained only by rich people — ■ that 
the common farmer cannot afford to equip and run his dairy in 
that way. 

I wish to show, however, by the following views and descrip- 
tions that some of the farms that we have credited with high 
scores are not exceptional ones. It is true that modern require- 
ments call for some up-to-date dairying methods and the farmers 
to pursue them must have sufficient funds to make a small invest- 
ment. Two or three hundred dollars in many instances, would be 
sufficient to meet all requirements, and many of the farms that 
have been inspected and have scores of fifty or thereabouts, could 
easily raise those scores to over sixty by merely changing some 
of their methods, without added expense. For example : 

By having the milkmen wash their hands before milking; 
wipe the udders of the cows with a moist cloth; remove the milk 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



161 



from the stable immediately after milking; and by washing the 
floors and walls of the milk room and white-washing the tie-ups 
in the stables. These are improvements that can readily be made 
with little or no expenditure. 

Although modern dairying methods do require some outlay 
and the farmers must be sufficiently well-to-do to spend a small 
amount, these requirements seldom prevent an ordinary farmer 
from fulfilling them. The difficulty usually is that the farmer, 
who does not improve, is one who is either too indifferent to pursue 
dairying methods or too conservative to adopt modern methods. One 
of the dilapidated, neglected farms that was visited belonged, I 
was informed, to " the richest man in town." 

Examples of good dairies : 

The following cuts show some of the creditable dairies. A 
few of these have expensive equipments and excellent methods 
maintained at great expense as model farms ; others represent the 
dairy of the ordinary farmer who is carrying on his business 
primarily for the reasonable profit that it returns to him. 




View of an excellent farm which evidently would produce milk under sanitary- 
conditions. 



1 62 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




Cow stable, well lighted, ample space. Cleanliness of cows, buildings and utensils, 

excellent. 




Modern stable with tie-up in basement, yel ample lighl and air space. Good 

condil inns throughout. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



163 




Same farm as preceding. A' herd at pasture under favorable conditions. 




Common farm buildings. A few years ago this farm was converted into a milk 
farm under modern requirements. A run-about automobile provided with an 
enclosed top serves for delivering milk quickly. 



164 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




Modern one-story dairy built especially for milk business and maintained under 

good conditions. 




Special form of cow si iblc. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



i6< 




Stable yard and herd of excellent dairy that is maintained at greater expense 
than possible on most farms. 




Common farm buildings having ample means of light for the cows and good 
conditions maintained throughout with small outlay. 



i66 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




Newly constructed sanitary milk farm under the very best conditions ; excellent 
equipment and methods throughout. Photo shows milk house and loading- 
platform in foreground. 



Hu u ~^^5 HHB 


■*■■ ■ - ; : . 


' ■ • •.^^..^.^Vw-*-* *»■ *X: 


iTSUff f7^r» ■*** 'W^T 


-^-%'^ 


pgpg« *** 



Up I- date fa 



dern 



consi rucli 
readily 



n and equi 



>pte< 



>ment. Progressive methods 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



167 



Examples of faults in dairies. 

The following farms illustrate certain of the objectionable 
features that have been noted during our inspections. It will be 
appreciated by every intelligent reader that without question, the 
most serious fault existing in these farms is that attributed to 
lack of cleanliness. Neglect in methods of handling milk entirely 
transcends the advantages of first-class equipment. An old farm 
scrupulously clean is better than a modern dairy carelessly main- 
tained. It is true, however, that neglect more commonly goes with 
the old dilapidated places. 

Some of the lowest scoring dairies are shown herewith. 

It is not my desire to point out by referring to these dairies 
individual instances of neglect. Instead, I wish to show character- 
istics, and in some of the views that have been selected as 
illustrating objectionable features, the owner, or manager, at the 
farm agreed with me perfectly in recognizing these objections, 
and in several instances expressed the intention to remedy the faults. 



4> 




__ ,^ \ 


iii 1 tiiniii iifow 


^ ■ JL ■ ■ ■ . m m ^~ f 


- 


1 


, 



Ample light is as important for cows as it is for poultry and horses. Formerly 
very little attention was paid to window space for cow barns. This photo 
illustrates a barn that has only one-fourth enough window space. 



i68 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




This place is run by men of foreign birth who have no one to keep house for 
them, and there were many evidences of lack of cleanliness. 




The lcanto on this barn makes a covered space for cows when in the yard but 
seriousl) interferes with light so that the interior of the stable is dark and 
objectionable. A new barn is contemplated, and should be built at once. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



169 




Noticeable lack of equipment and method at this farm, — as the picture indicates. 




Similarly, conditions at this dairy are plainly told by the photograph ; they are 

seriously objectionable. 



I/O 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




Illustration of an old and cluttered farm. Will modern methods be adopted here? 




Insufficient light, no milk room. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



171 





H 


;,i ■::.-■: 


HhK^j9VW«F' v ^ ./4i3MBi&? 


Hife 



Insufficient light ; no milk room ; improvements needed which possibly would be 

made if properly urged. 




Large and adequate farm buildings may be run without sufficient regard to modern 
requirements. This farm does not need new buildings, but with improvements 
in methods high-class milk could be produced here. 



172 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



^B * '? HI if 


1 -»4' -V'V* 


F 


. . , fc MM ,.„...■ J± :^jS\ 


' 1 f-.-t 

am 

- r - — 








1 



A typical view of conditions which would be objected to by many people ; but one-half 
of the farms that supply milk to Lawrence are no better. 




Piles of manure al times extend to windows. Conditions inside similarly neglected. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



173 



- 




• 


« * 


4 v ": 


' 

** 

»* * 



The milk bottles and wash-tub occupy the only milk room in use at this dairy. 
This is out-of-doors and near a brook. Here the bottles are rinsed after 
washing in a tub with water that is brought from the house kitchen. Three 
hundred quarts of milk are sent from here to Lawrence each day. 




This box made of rough boards loosely put together, allowing dust and rain to 
penetrate, is the only place for storage of milk. Open cans filled with milk 
were found to contain specks of dirt, while in one can there was a live frog. 
Extended improvements were recommended to the owner who said that he 
would see that they were made. A second visit a few weeks later showed 
a small beginning. 



174 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

List of good dairies : — 

When we consider the means of improving the dairies, two 
alternatives are usually open; — To condemn the bad dairies and 
compel the owners to better the conditions or go out of the milk 
business : or instead, to approve the good dairies, publish a list of 
them and thus give the consumers an opportunity to buy the best 
quality. The proper authorities should doubtless prohibit the sale 
of milk from some of the worst of the dairies, but for the purposes 
of this investigation I have decided to designate only the good 
dairies, and I am including herewith a list of twenty-eight dairies 
that were found to be supplying milk that is produced under 
especially good conditions. Any farm that is included in the 
following list has obtained a score of at least sixty points out of 
a possible ioo and either delivers milk directly to consumers or 
sells to a contractor who has a bottling plant that also has been 
found to have a score of sixty or more. 

Several high-grade farms are omitted because at present they 
sell milk to contractors who have bottling plants that score under 
sixty. A few other farms contemplate making improvements 
which would materially increase their scores, but, as these farms 
are now a little below sixty they are not included in this present list. 
A few farms have followed the suggestions made in our reports 
on their dairies and have accordingly raised their score above sixty 
since our first inspection. 

Following is the corrected list of names with the quarts of 
milk produced at the time of inspections in the summer: — 

Andover : — Shattuck Bros, produce 400 quarts daily ; sell 
direct to consumers. Wm. M. Wood produces 160 quarts; 40 of 
which are delivered to the Wood Mill Restaurant; rest, not sold. 

Boxford: — J. W. Chadwick produces 300 quarts and sells 
direct to consumers; Thomas Downes, 50 quarts and sells to 
C. D. Glennie, contractor; J. Henry Nason, 100 quarts and sells 
to C. D. Glennie. 

I JERRY, N. H. : — H. P. Hood & Sons deliver six to ten quarts 
of special milk, and designated " Hood Farm Milk " to distinguish 
from their general supply. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 175 

North Andoyer : — Chas. Appleton produces 30 quarts ; 
James Glemiie, 150 quarts; North Anclover Town Farm, 30 quarts; 
Wm. H. Phelps, 35 quarts, and all sell to C. D. Glennie, contractor. 

Lawrence; — Theobald Daley produces 150 quarts, sells 
direct to consumers. 

Methuen : — All of the following producers sell direct to 
consumers: — E. L. Bragdon, 325 quarts daily; L. S. Cox, 250 
quarts ; D. F. Connelly, 200 quarts ; W. M. Dooley, 220 quarts ; 
G. E. Flanders, 160 quarts; Fred L. Gardner, 130 quarts; F. H. 
Giles, 140 quarts; Harnisch Bros., 300 quarts; John Hoh, 190 
quarts; Fred Miller, 375 quarts; E. D. Taylor, 450 quarts; W. E. 
Williams, 450 quarts; G. K. Webster, 250 quarts; and F. L. Currier 
produces 35 quarts and sells to F. L. Gardner; Chas. Kitchin pro- 
duces 100 quarts and sells 50 quarts direct. 

Salem : — P. H. Caron & Son produce 160 quarts and sell 
direct to consumers; R. H. Dunbar, 200 quarts and sells direct to 
consumers. 

The foregoing farms furnish a grade of milk that would be 
classified as Inspected Milk. In addition there are a few sources 
of Certified or Special milk as follows : 

The Walker-Gordon Laboratory Company furnishes special 
or modified milk that is sold principally by prescription and for 
infants. Price eighteen to fifty cents a quart taken in Boston. 

Certified milk is furnished by H. P. Hood & Sons, from the 
Middlebrook Farm, Dover, N. H. This milk is certified by the 
Milk Commission of the Suffolk District Medical Society. Retail 
price is sixteen cents a quart. 

Certified milk is also available from the farms of J. A. and 
W. H. Gould. The milk is certified by the Medical Milk Com- 
mission of Boston. The Messrs. Gould have three certified farms : 
one in Reading with about forty-five cows, another in Beverly, 
with 180 cows, and one in Essex with 100 cows. Milk would be 
delivered by express and price would be sixteen cents a quart. 



176 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Inspection of the Hood Farms : — 

From farms located in towns of Londonderry, Hudson and 
Windham, all within six miles of Derry, N. H., about 965 quarts 
of milk at the time of our inspection were being shipped to Law- 
rence daily. This milk is collected by three teams which take it to 
the plant of H. P. Hood & Sons at Derry Depot. There it is 
pasteurized, bottled, and afterwards sent to Lawrence by railroad 
milk cars. The writer visited this plant August '15th and 16th 
and on the 18th visited some of the farms that produce this milk. 

Milk is received at the bottling plant from many farms in 
surrounding towns, which make up the general supply for both 
Lawrence and Boston, Mass., but the three routes referred to above 
constitute in ordinary cases the supply for Lawrence. Forty-five 
farms make up this supply. The writer selected ten from the list 
as typical ones to visit and made a personal examination of them, 
filling out a score-sheet for seven, which enabled him to compare 
with the conditions that were found in farms nearby Lawrence. 

Before inspecting these farms, the writer was informed by 
milk contractors and disinterested parties that farms at a consider- 
able distance from a city would be found to score less than 
those nearby; whereas representatives of H. P. Hood & Sons said 
that they regarded the dairies in Vermont, the most distant they 
have, as being better than those near at hand; but of all their 
sources they considered the farms around Derry, N. H., the best 
because those farms were within the influence of their own model 
farm, and therefore of the highest excellence. Milk from these 
farms near Derry is bottled to supply the family trade, while milk 
from Vermont is sold in eight-quart cans at wholesale. For these 
reasons it seemed desirable to make as fair a comparison as possible 
between the conditions at Derry and those near Lawrence. 

As a result of an inspection of these farms, it appears that 
conditions there are not greatly different from those in the farms 
that are nearer Lawrence. The Derry farms are slightly better 
than dairies in Pelham, N. H., and inferior to those in Salem, N. H. ; 
they are decidedly below those of Boxford, Methuen and North 
Andover. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 177 

Milk is taken from the above farms to the plant at Derry in 
eight-quart cans of ordinary construction, many of which by hard 
usage have become battered and rusted, and transportation is by 
ordinary open wagons, in which the cans are covered with blankets. 
The maximum haul is about seven miles, over roads fairly free 
from dust, and better than found in many country districts. The 
residences of two of these teamsters were visited, and the teams 
of empty cans and cans of sour milk were found without any 
special sanitary protection. In fact, in the transportation of this 
milk and the methods of handling by the teamsters, there was no 
apparent advance over the ordinary methods of thirty years ago. 

After the milk is delivered at the Derry plant, about seven 
o'clock each morning, each can is sampled by an inspector who 
takes out a spoonful and tastes of it, rejecting any can of milk that 
is sour. A number of ordinary spoons are used for this method of 
sampling, and commonly each spoon is dipped in a dish of water 
after each sample is taken and before it is used again. Milk that 
passes this inspection is poured into a heater where the temperature 
is raised to 146 F. It is then pumped through pipes to a heating 
tank in a separate room in the third story. It flows through this 
tank slowly, taking about twenty-five minutes to pass through. It 
then passes over a large cooler in a separate room directly beneath 
the holding tank. Here it is quickly cooled to about 40 F. It then 
flows through pipes to rooms in the first story where it is either 
bottled or put in cans. This process constitutes one form of pas- 
teurizing milk in bulk. 

The milk from the Vermont supply, also received at the Derry 
plant, is generally used for wholesale trade in both Lawrence and 
Boston. The milk that goes to Lawrence comes principally from 
farms that are located between Newport in the extreme northerly 
part of Vermont, and Wells River, Vermont. From this source 
about 2550 quarts per day were reported as being shipped to Law- 
rence at the time of the writer's visit in August. This milk comes 
in milk cars, in eight-quart cans. It was found to be thoroughly 
iced, and at a temperature of below 50 F. when received. In the 
same way as for the milk described above, this supply when 



i 7 8 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



received is first sampled by tasting for sourness, then heated to 
146 F., cooled to about 40 F., and put in cans ready for shipment 
to Lawrence the same day, and delivered to customers the following 
day. The interval from the time that milk is produced on farms 
around Derry to the time of its delivery to consumers in Lawrence 
is from thirty-six to forty-eight hours; and the corresponding 
interval from the farms in Vermont to consumers in Lawrence is 
from sixty to seventy-two hours. 

In order to secure desirable improvements in conditions at the 
dairy, it is necessary to have a working spirit of cooperation between 
the farmer and the milk contractor. This cooperation is not as 
evident at Derry as in the places near Lawrence. Many of the 
farmers have outspoken grievances ; some were considering selling 
their milk to other contractors, and others were disposed to 
abandon milk production unless they could realize better returns. 




The Bottling Plant of H. P. Hood & Sons at Derry, N. H. 

Besides the milk supplies from farms around Derry, and the 
supply from Vermont, H. P. Hood & Sons also have a farm of 
their own at Derry and the milk from this place is sold as the Hood 
Farm Milk, a special milk, at twelve cents per quart. The main 
stable contains eighty cows. It is a two-story building, the upper 
story being used for hay, the first story for cows, the cellar for 
manure which is removed daily. Although this building is not of 
modern construction, an effort has been made to bring conditions 



THE MILK SUPPLY 179 

up to a high standard. Besides this main stable, there are two 
others associated with this Hood Farm, the Bradford, about half 
a mile away, and containing twenty-seven cows; and the Clark, 
one mile away, and containing twenty-five cows. These two farms 
are now conducted by the superintendent of the main farm. Milk 
is all brought to the bottling station at the main farm, where it is 
bottled without pasteurizing and shipped to various cities. Six 
to ten quarts a day are sent to Lawrence. 

Turner Center Dairying Association : — 

The milk that comes to Lawrence from the Turner Center 
Dairying Association of Auburn, Me., about 4000 quarts, con- 
stitutes a sixth part of the total amount that is used in the City. 
It is received at the plant of the Association here in Lawrence 
as skim-milk, cream, and buttermilk. About one-half is sold as 
skim-milk, 800 quarts per day as ordinary milk, prepared by blend- 
ing cream and skim-milk, and the rest as buttermilk and cream. 
Only a small amount is sold at retail; but mostly to hotels, 
restaurants, stores, and milkmen, many of whom buy here when 
their regular supply runs short. 

The Turner Center milk comes largely from farms in ten 
towns around Hartford and Livermore Falls, Maine, constituting 
what is known as the Rangely division of the Turner Center dairies. 
The Association has furnished a list of these farms, together with 
score cards made by their inspectors. 

The average scores as here credited are apparently higher than 
scores obtained by our methods here in Lawrence. This is due 
to the fact that a form of card has been used that is less exacting. 
Also, different inspectors are likely to have different standards, and 
in order to make a fair comparison of the score of one district 
with that of another, either the same inspector should do the work, 
or the different inspectors should be guided by one common method. 
It is noted in the Turner Center score cards, that two farms were 
inspected by a different inspector from all the rest and these farms 
have particularly low scores. 

It is claimed by this Association that they make a special point 
of cooling the milk, that their " farmers have ice, and the milk is 



180 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

put in ice water as soon as it is drawn, and never gets warmed up." 
This is a requirement that probably would not be fully lived up 
to by all the farmers. The importance of cooling milk, and 
keeping it cold by proper icing is doubtless well appreciated by the 
Association, and the necessity is evident when one considers the 
time, — not less than three days — that must elapse between the 
production of this milk and its delivery in Lawrence. 

Milk is taken from the farms to the various railroad stations, 
then transported by cars to Auburn, Maine, where it is pasteurized 
and clarified through separators, brought to the required standard 
of fats, drawn into cans, put in storage, and later shipped by rail- 
road to Lawrence. This is the usual procedure for the 
Lawrence supply ; but at times when railroad trains are off schedule, 
and during certain of the hot spells, the usual order of shipment is 
disarranged, and milk from various other sources which is received 
at their Auburn plant must be sent forward. 



Milk Bottling Plants for Lawrence. 

Out of the total amount of 15,640 quarts of milk per day 
that is supplied to the city of Lawrence from nearby towns, 7688 
quarts or about one-half is received by contractors, and 
bottled near the City before being delivered to consumers. There 
are twenty-two of these bottling plants, thus supplying milk to 
the City. 

The standard of methods used in bottling should correspond 
with the requirements in the dairies. A dairy that has excellent 
equipment and maintains excellent methods should have associated 
with it a bottling plant of equal standards. 

In order to determine the qualities of the various bottling 
plants a form of inspection sheet or score card has been prepared as 
shown herewith. The values assigned to the various items corre- 
spond with those recommended by the United States government 
This score card lias been used for fifteen of the above bottling plants 
and the results have been tabulated. The following is a summary 
of these results : 



THE MILK SUPPLY 181 

Number of plants inspected, 15 

1 has a separate handling room. 
8 have hot water heaters. 

13 have apparatus in good condition. 

2 are free from odor and flies. 
10 have floors clean. • 

10 receive and store milk below 55 F. 

Total quarts of milk furnished daily by these 15 plants, 6855 

Average score for equipment, 18.8 

Average score for method, 26.8 

Average total score, 45.6 

Lowest, 26.0 

Highest, 62.0 

INSPECTION OF MILK BOTTLING PLANTS 

BY 

THE LAWRENCE SURVEY, 520 BAY STATE BUILDING 



Owner or manager Plant No 

Trade name State of 

City or town Date of inspection 

Permit or License No. 

Business of plant: Bottling milk, separating cream, preparing butter, 
making ice cream 

Milk is furnished by 

In summer is received packed in ice: comes by team, refrigerator cars, 
freight cars: 

Temperature of newly received milk 

Exposure of milk to contamination: 

Water supply is from covered well, spring, pond, city pipes 

Supply likely to be contaminated 

Privy vaults protected against flies 

Drain pipes connect to public system, to cesspool, to river, 

cases of typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, 
tonsilitis, or among employees at this plant 

What cases during the past year? 

Inspector's recommendations: 

Minor improvements suggested 

Important improvements especially recommended 

Inspector interviewed at plant owner, lessee, laborer 

Sketch or photo of plant and surroundings. 



CITY MILK PLANTS-SCORE CARD 

RECOMMENDED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 



BUILDING 




BUILDING 




EQUIPMENT 


SCORE 


METHOD 


SCORE 


Location: Free from contaminat- 




Cleanliness: 




ing surroundings 


2 


Floors 


3 


Arrangement: 




Walls 


1 


Separate receiving room 


1 


Ceilings 


2 


Separate handling room 


2 


Doors and windows 


1 


Separate wash room 




Shafting, pulleys, hangers, pipes 


1 


Separate sales room 




Freedom from odors 


2 


Separate boiler room 




Freedom from flies and other 




Construction: 




insects 


3 


Floors tight, sound, cleanable 




Drainage 


2 


Walls tight, smooth, cleanable 
Ceilings smooth, tight, clean- 




APPARATUS 










able 




Cleanliness: 




Provisions for pure air 




Thoroughly washed and rinsed 


6 


Screens 




Sterilized in live steam 30 min- 




Minimum of shafting, pulleys, 




utes 


5 


hangers, exposed pipes, etc. 




(Thoroughly scalded after 




Provisions for light 




•washing with water over 
200 F. or live steam, 3) 
Boxes, papers or caps steril- 




APPARATUS 






Boiler 


2 


ized 


3 


(Hot-water heater i) 




Protected from dirt 


2 


Milk cooler or ice-cream ma- 








chine 


2 


HANDLING MILK 




Refrigerator 


2 


Received below 50 F. 


5 


Appliances for cleaning bottles 




(5p°-55°, 4; 55:-6o°. 3) 




and utensils 


2 


Rapidity of handling in plant 


3 


Racks, etc., for utensils and 




Freedom from undue expos- 




bottles after cleaning 


1 


ure to air in plant 


2 


Sterilizer for utensils and bot- 




Capping bottles by machine 


1 


tles 


2 


Bottle top and cap protected by 




Bottling or package machine 


1 


covering 


2 


Wash bowl, soap and towel for 




Storage 45 F. or below 


3 


attendants 


2 


(45°-5o , 2; 5O -55°, 1) 




Protection during delivery 
Condition of apparatus 


2 


INSPECTION 




(Make deduction for inacces- 




Bacteriological work 


4 


sible parts, open seams, rusty 




Inspection of dairies supplying 




ware, decayed or battered 




milk 


5 


tables or sink, milk-carrying 




(Once a year, t ; four times a 




pipes with rough interiors 




year. 4) 




and lack of frequent hand 




MISCELLANEOUS 




couplings, and for badly 




Cleanliness of attendants 




worn and poorly repaired 




2 




(General Appearance, hands, 
etc., 1; clean washable cloth- 
ing, 1) 

Cleanliness of delivery outfit 




material) 
Laboratory and Equipment 


4 

2 




Water Supply: 

Clean, fresh, convenient and 


1 
40 


2 


abundant 


Score for method 
Total Score 


60 


Score for equipment 








1 n spector 





THE MILK SUPPLY 183 

There is even greater need of raising the standards of these 
city bottling plants than of improving the conditions at the farms. 
A bottling plant may receive milk from a dozen farms, and if con- 
ditions at one of those farms are unsatisfactory, milk from that 
farm can be excluded without disturbing the supply from the other 
eleven farms. But when the conditions at the bottling plant are 
unsatisfactory, a discontinuance of milk from that station or plant 
cuts out the supply from all twelve farms. Further, it is not fair 
to ask a farmer to maintain excellent conditions and then have the 
quality of the milk that he furnishes vitiated by careless handling 
in the bottling plant. The sanitary conditions at the bottling plant 
should be in every case equal to or even better than those at the 
farms. The standard should be maintained as a protection to the 
city's health; but it is also needed as an object lesson for the 
farmer, who can then well understand that he is only expected to 
satisfy requirements similar to those that are in force at the milk 
bottling plant. 

Unfortunately, many of the existing bottling plants are 
inferior in standards to the farms from which they receive milk. 
In some cases, there is also more discredit and disapproval of 
modern methods at the bottling plant than at the farm. There has 
been a wide movement by State and Nation to develop and improve 
farm conditions, but little attention has been given to milk handling 
methods as practised by small milk contractors for cities. 

Here in Lawrence wholesale prices vary today from four to 
five cents per quart; and instead of prices being governed by 
quality, the two principal causes of variation now are length of 
haul; and, as one of the contractors has put it, " sharp trading." 

Improvement is needed in the Lawrence bottling plants. En- 
forcement of proper city requirements is one means of securing 
this improvement. Another, is by more general pasteurization of 
milk. A third is by a greater union of bottling plants and con- 
tractors, so as to substitute improved conditions for the small 
bottling plants, and unite the fifteen that now exist into about three 
first-class groups. 



1 84 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



The following bottling plants have been credited as scoring 
over sixty points out of a possible ioo: 

C. D. Glennie, North Andover, inspected. 
H. P. Hood & Sons, Derry, N. H., inspected. 
Turner Center Dairying Association, Auburn, Maine, not 
inspected. 



Objectionable conditions found in many of the milk bottling plants 




\ milk bottling room in the basement of a dwelling-house. In the foreground are 
cans and bottles of milk left around in disorder; in the background is the 
tub that is used for washing the bottles and cans. There is no sink nor 
provision for floor drainage, nor stove nor heater. Hot water is brought 
here in eight-quarl cans. The ice-chest is dirty and foul — conditions resembling 
those ilia! arc- sometimes found in dark corners of neglected cellars or 
basements. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 





A bottling room in a shed. Milk is received here from some of the best farms 
that send milk to Lawrence. The quality of this milk, if judged by the cream 
line, would be rated very high; but any neat housekeeper would object to 
conditions here existing. A milk bottling-room should certainly be kept as 
clean and orderly as a kitchen. The floor here is broken and dirty. The 
stove as arranged is a poor substitute for a water heater. At the end of the 
ice-box is seen the sink where the cans and bottles are washed and over the 
sink is the soiled and sour cloth that is used for washing the utensils. 



Ice-cream plants in Lawrence. 

Besides a general supply of milk for both stores and 
houses, there is another note-worthy means of distributing 
milk, namely, through the medium of ice-cream. Although milk 
for ice-cream in some cases is cooked sufficiently during manufac- 
ture to destroy most of the disease germs, very few of the plants 
that supply ice-cream for the open market make any attempts to 
cook the ingredients. 

Cream and skim milk are bought up at wholesale and com- 
bined by a manufacturing and freezing process into a great variety 
of flavors and qualities, and usually sold within a day or two after 
it is manufactured, although in some few cases ice-cream is kept 
in storage at zero temperature for many days. In this freezing 
process the germs of disease, or of fermentation and organic change, 
are retarded in development, but the cold does not kill all of them 



186 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

nor prevent later growth at a higher temperature. Typhoid and 
other diseases may be transmitted by ice-cream. After being held 
for three months frozen in ice, typhoid germs have been found to 
be alive and able to transmit disease. The importance of ice- 
cream as a factor affecting public health has become greatly 
increased recently on account of the extensive sale of ice-cream at 
soda fountains and in ice-cream cones. It seemed important to 
make an examination of plants that supply Lawrence. For the 
purposes of this inspection Mr. A. R. Miller was employed and he, 
or the undersigned, visited all of the principal plants in the City, 
examined the conditions in detail, and filled out a score sheet that 
was adapted from the form recommended by the United States 
government for city milk plants. Copies of these sheets are shown 
on a preceding page under Milk Bottling. 

This score sheet was found to satisfy the proper requirement 
fairly well. It does not, however, readily permit of high scores 
nor of low scores so that the range of variation between the best 
plants and the lowest is not as marked as might have been desired. 
It has served, however, to point out many features that must 
necessarily have important bearing on the equipment and methods 
of first-class plants. 

Summary of Inspection of Ice Cream Plants. 

Number of plants in all, 16. 

I has a separate handling room. 

7 have hot-water heaters. 

5 have apparatus in good condition. 

10 are free from odors and flies. 

ii have floors clean. 

8 store milk below 50 F. 

Total quarts of milk and cream used daily in summer, about 
2000. 

Average score for equipment, 20.1 

Average score for method, 30.6 

Total score, 50.7 

Lowest, 40.5 

Highest, 65.5 



THE MILK SUPPLY 187 

Further improvements can well be made in the sanitary con- 
ditions of making and handling ice-cream and moreover, the 
conditions that exist in some of the inferior places are alarmingly 
bad. In many of these the ice-cream manufacturing is done in 
rooms connected with tenement houses. Ice-chests or refrigerators 
for family food are commonly kept in the same room. Children 
from the house or from the streets pass in and out of these manu- 
facturing rooms without restriction. Ventilation and lighting are 
neglected. Screens are seldom provided. In many places the 
people speak poor English and are wholly unfamiliar with the 
dangers of disease or the probability of infection through milk. 
Nearly all of the ice-cream makers visited, however, showed a 
willingness to improve their methods. Their interest impressed 
the writer and Mr. Miller, who inspected most of the plants, more 
favorably than did the attitude of the milk bottlers. 

Milk as a carrier of disease. 

I have indicated that milk at the dairy, at the bottling station, 
or at ice-cream plants may easily become infected and transmit 
disease. 

Why is milk an effective carrier of disease? 

Because, 

1. It is an important article of food, in fact next in impor- 
tance to air and water. 

2. As a beverage and in the form of cream, butter and cheese, 
it is more extensively used than any other article of food. 

3. It is commonly consumed in a raw state which favors the de- 
velopment of germ life. 

4. Bacteria grow in it so rapidly that frequently when consumed 
it is " richer in bacteria by far than the sewage of our large 
cities." 

5. The fact that it is a fluid, and not a solid, intensifies it as a 
carrier of disease. 

6. It is difficult to see impurities in milk. It is opaque. As an 
experiment, add half a dozen teaspoonfuls of dirt to a jar of 
milk; shake thoroughly, and see if the dirt is discernible. 



1 88 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

7. Thus the germs of disease grow profusely in milk, trans- 
mitting typhoid fever, diphtheria and many abdominal diseases, 
especially among infants, and we cannot, as a rule, detect the 
presence of this infection by taste, odor or color. 

8. Neither can infection in milk be detected quickly even by 
experts. It requires from twenty-four to forty-eight hours 
to test milk chemically and bacteriologically. When disease is 
discovered it is often too late to stop an epidemic. 

9. Milk transmits disease many times elusively, concealed and 
without detection. If babies that die each year by disease and 
impurities in milk were instead scalded to death, there would 
be a popular uprising against such barbarity. Why not elim- 
inate disease-laden milk? 



Recommendations for improving the Milk Supply: 

Classification of Milk : 

The farmer classifies apples as No. 1 and No. 2's; and the 
run of the orchard he may classify as just apples. So it should 
be with milk. The farmer that can " raise " all No. 1 milk should 
get the highest price for it; if he does not care to go to the expense 
and bother required in raising No. 1 milk he could classify nearly 
all as No. 2 ; or, he may decide to have but one common market 
grade, just milk. For apples or milk undoubtedly the grades 
should be distinct and the farmer should receive a price according 
to the grade he produces. 

For the No. 1 grade I have adopted the name of Certified 
Milk. This should be milk of excellent quality, produced on farms 
scoring over ninety from a healthy mixed herd of cows which are 
tuberculin-tested once a year when no tuberculin cows are found, 
or twice a year when tuberculin cows are found and removed. This 
milk should show in fats about four per cent and 13.5 per cent 
in total solids, and have a bacterial count of 10,000 or less when 
it is delivered in the City. It should be certified by a medical 
commission in accordance with the Massachusetts law and plainly 



THE MILK SUPPLY 189 

labeled as Certified Milk. Such milk should sell for a price of 
fifteen to eighteen cents per quart. 

Inspected Milk Heated. This includes milk that is produced 
under reasonably clean and careful conditions, in dairies that are 
better than the ordinary, but not necessarily having expensive 
outfits and using extra precautions and great care as must be done 
in Certified dairies. To come in the Inspected class a dairy should 
have a score of at least sixty-five when marked rigidly as we have 
done or 75, when marked leniently as is done in some cities. On 
a preceding page we have given a list of twenty-eight dairies that 
have scored over sixty and probably nearly all have now made 
further improvements which would raise their scores to sixty-five 
or more. These are dairies that have willingly and voluntarily 
adopted improvements on their own initiative. They are the pro- 
gressive dairies. But there are also other farms that could easily 
come in the Inspected class. Some would merely need to sell their 
milk to a contractor who has an approved bottling plant, others 
now have scores of fifty to sixty and could make certain improve- 
ments at small expense that would raise their scores to sixty-five. 
Recommendations for improvements have been made to them and 
I believe that the city authorities would do well to publish at 
intervals additional names of dairies that come into this class. 

Further requirements of inspected milk should be the standards 
for fats and solids as fixed by the State and when the milk leaves 
the dairy it should not contain over 100,000 bacteria per cubic 
centimeter. 

Furthermore, before the milk is delivered to the consumers 
it should be further safeguarded against contamination and 
infectious diseases by being scientifically heated. This process may 
be called Pasteurization and closely resembles what the house- 
keeper calls parboiling. The milk is brought to a temperature of 
145 F., held at that temperature for twenty minutes, then suddenly 
cooled to 40 F. and should be kept at about that temperature until 
it is used by the consumers. This process of Heating or Pasteuriz- 
ing I shall refer to more fully after describing the next grade of 
milk. The price of Inspected Milk Heated should be nine to ten 
cents per quart. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 191 

Market Milk Heated: When dairies that produce Certified 
Milk and Inspected Milk have been deducted from the total supply 
of a large city like Lawrence we have left many ordinary dairies 
of fairly acceptable qualities — dairies that would have been con- 
sidered as good enough ten years ago, but which have not adopted 
modern methods and do not appreciate the advance that is rapidly 
being made; there will also be many dairies that are trying to 
produce large quantities of milk and do not care to adopt any 
improvements which they regard as " frills." They prefer to keep 
cows that give twelve to twenty quarts of milk a day and wish to 
put this milk into the market with the least possible labor and 
expense and the minimum regard to regulations and rules. They 
wish to run their business exactly as does a grocery man who 
keeps a cluttered, disorderly store, but sells a large amount of goods. 

These methods cannot all be condemned, nor forbidden. A 
fair-minded inspector would find that many of these objectionable 
dairies are in the hands of owners who are competent to improve. 
They would listen to suggestions. But there are some dairies, 
undeniably bad and a menace to public health, whose owners would 
not make improvements. Such owners should be persuaded, if 
possible, to adopt passable methods of cleanliness; but where 
changes are hopeless, in some cases bluntly opposed, then unques- 
tionably the public should first of all be protected by excluding 
such milk from the city. Every farm should have a score of at 
least forty points out of a possible 100 and the milk should have 
a bacterial count of not over 500,000 per cubic centimeter. 

Heating or Pasteurizing. 

Finally, it must be acknowledged that it takes a long time to 
bring about material improvements in the dairies and bottling 
stations that supply milk to a large city. Are the methods at dairies 
and bottling plants for Lawrence today much better than they were 
five or ten years ago? Five or ten years can easily pass without 
marked changes ; meanwhile what of sickness and disease that is 
being unnecessarily transmitted through the City by the medium 
of milk? About how many children and adults per year must we 



192 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

allow to contract sickness or death by disease in milk? We have 
in Lawrence 1500 deaths per year, and we have 12,000 to 15,000 
cases of pronounced sickness. Other cities which have been care- 
fully studying the causes of sickness find that a surprising amount 
of the reported cases and deaths can be directly traced to milk. 
If in Lawrence one-fiftieth of the sickness is due to milk — 250 
cases of scarlet fever, typhoid, diphtheria, septic sore throat, 
dysentery and other diseases — and if one-half of that sickness can 
be prevented by reasonable means, should we not expect it to be 
clone and done quickly? 

As a practicable and reasonable way of eliminating much of 
this sickness, lessening the death rate, and improving the public 
health of the whole City, I wish to urge that all milk that is not 
Certified, be heated, or pasteurized, before it is sold to consumers. 
I have come to this view-point not by a hasty glance over the field 
of possibilities, but by trying to consider carefully during the past 
nine months, the various interests of farmer, milkman, and con- 
sumer. The milk question is a complicated one; it will not be 
settled quickly. Pasteurization can be applied as an immediate 
remedy; and as filters are unquestionably needed for the Lawrence 
water supply, so I believe is pasteurization for the milk supply. 

The process of scientifically heating, or pasteurizing, consists 
of heating the milk at a temperature of 145 F. for twenty minutes, 
then suddenly cooling it to about 40 F. This treatment destroys 
any disease germs that may be in the milk, while leaving its 
quality as a food nearly or quite unchanged. Raw milk is an 
excellent culture medium for a great range of organic growth. It 
normally contains lactic acid bacilli, which cause its souring, yet 
which are helpful in the digestion of the milk after it has been 
taken into the stomach. Raw milk may, however, contain a great 
variety of other organisms, derived from dust in the air, from 
dirty utensils, dirty Hanks of cows, dirty human beings who handle 
the milk, and who may infect it with the germs of many diseases. 

Pasteurizing has become an approved method of treating milk 
because it destroys disease germs that the milk may contain, yet 
it does not impair the quality of the milk; but in pasteurizing — it 



THE MILK SUPPLY 193 

is necessary not only to parboil, or cook, the milk for twenty 
minutes, but afterwards to cool it rapidly to a temperature of fifty 
degrees or less. If the milk were allowed to remain warm, lactic 
acid, or souring bacilli, which remain alive after the heating, 
would cause the rapid souring of the milk. The cooling is, there- 
fore, a preservative measure, adopted for the same reason that ice 
is used to preserve raw milk. 

Pasteurizing is a very effective process when properly done. 
For example : it has been found that temperatures higher than 
about 145 degrees lead to changes in the chemical character of 
milk, and therefore in its food characteristics. Absolute freedom 
from living germs can of course be assured by the boiling of milk; 
but milk that has been boiled is very different both in taste and 
in other respects from either raw or properly pasteurized milk, and 
generally speaking, it is not suitable as food for young children. 
The most important changes in the milk, produced by excessive 
heating, are changes in the character of the proteids which are the 
tissue forming substances that give milk its peculiar value as a 
food. Long and careful experiments have seemed to prove that 
properly pasteurized milk comes through the process with its 
proteids practically unchanged, so that it is for all persons, except 
possibly a few babies (who might in any event furnish digestive 
puzzles) as good a food as before it was heated. Properly 
pasteurized milk, and there is need of emphasizing the word 
" properly," is not distinguishable from raw milk by either its taste 
or appearance ; and even the chemist has great difficulty in detecting 
any difference between raw milk and pasteurized milk. 

In the bulk process of pasteurization, that is extensively used, 
milk is run through a heater and thus raised to the required 
temperature; it is then run into a tank where this temperature is 
maintained for twenty minutes; afterwards it is drawn through 
cooling tubes which quickly reduce its temperature to the proper 
point. When this process was first started twelve years ago, many 
people thought that it was affecting the taste of the milk, and that 
the cream line in milk jars was less noticeable after pasteurization. 
As a substitute Flash Pasteurization was tried. By this method 



194 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

the milk was heated to a temperature of 140 to 145 just for a 
minute or two ; but this brief interval did not prove to be sufficient 
to destroy disease that the milk contained, and in place of Flash 
Pasteurization, the Bulk process has been generally adopted. 

But, within the past two years, a new process has been 
developed by which milk is pasteurized in sealed bottles. This 
method has been used for many years in the best processes of 
manufacturing beer. Strange as it may seem, it remained only to 
apply to the purification of milk these scientific and hygienic 
standards that have been thus used for beer. But the milk bottle 
must have a water-tight cover and commonly this is made of tin 
foil, crimped as for ginger ale and birch beer bottles. The bottles 
are filled with milk and tightly covered; then subjected to a 
shower of water the temperature of which is gradually raised by 
the admission of steam. Pasteurization is completed in about one 
hour. Then the steam is shut off and water, continuing to run 
in a few minutes, becomes cool and the sealed bottles can after- 
wards be removed and placed in ice or immersed in ice water. 

This method affords the best possible protection to good 
health. After the bottle is sealed, the milk is not again exposed. 
Possibility of disease transmission is reduced to a minimum, and 
the expense involved is not increased seriously. The principal in- 
crease is in the price of the bottle. The common form of bottle 
is not air-tight or water-proof, and so far no practicable way has 
been devised for adding an air and water-tight cap to the present 
style of bottle. Instead, a new form has been developed that has 
a projecting bead at the top of the bottle on to which an overlapping 
cap of tin foil is forced by a special machine. A milk jar with this 
form of cap is a little more difficult to open than one with the 
pasteboard cap and it will not stand hard usage as well, since chip- 
ping of the glass bead may render the bottle defective. The advan- 
tages of pasteurizing in sealed packages, however, are very evident, 
and doubtless this method will soon become the most acceptable 
one. Manufacturers claim that within the year 191 1, the process 
has been introduced in over one hundred towns and cities. 

Pasteurizing by the consumer, in his own house, is possible, but 
difficult to accomplish satisfactorily. The milk bottle should be 



THE MILK SUPPLY 195 

placed in a kettle of cool water and the temperature gradually raised 
until a test thermometer indicates 145 on a Fahrenheit scale, or 6o° 
on a Centigrade scale. It should not be raised more than a degree 
or two above this temperature. After being heated or cooked at 
this same temperature for 20 or 30 minutes the bottle should be 
removed and immediately cooled, preferably by immersing it in ice 
water or by packing in chopped ice. , The process cannot be left 
to the manipulation of a careless cook or maid; commonly the milk 
is heated too high and is not rapidly nor sufficiently cooled. The 
required temperatures — just 145 F. for heating and 50 F. or less 
for cooling — can only be correctly determined by actually testing 
with a thermometer. 

The process can be somewhat improved by using one of the 
small pasteurizing outfits that can be bought in the open market. 
Home pasteurization, however, should not take the place of public 
or commercial pasteurization on a larger scale. It can be used in 
special circumstances to advantage; for example, when a family 
buys dirty or disease-laden milk, (just as many families are now 
doing in Lawrence), until a better supply can be obtained, home 
pasteurization should be employed ; also, in certain cases of sickness, 
or infant feeding, whenever emergency precautions are called for, 
home pasteurization is to be recommended; but when we consider 
the best means of advancing public health as a whole, there are 
urgent reasons for a large and general pasteurizing plant that will 
be equipped with the best of apparatus and produce effective and 
reliable results, just as a city plant for filtering and purifying an 
impure water-supply is recognized to be an indispensable public 
utility. Both are invaluable safeguards of public health. In 
Lawrence the water supply has been protected, but the milk supply 
has not. An effective and urgent remedy, I believe, exists in the 
process of pasteurization. It has been used for years in Denmark 
and Germany, has lately been introduced in Chicago, recently adop- 
ted in New York and at present is used by the large milk contractors 
that supply Boston and by H. P. Hood & Sons and the Turner 
Center Dairying Association for milk that they deliver in Lawrence. 
I recommend that milkmen and contractors adopt pasteurization as 
a means of promoting their business interests and safeguarding their 



196 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



trade, and that the City authorities pass necessary ordinances there- 
by to require the pasteurization of all milk, except Certified Milk, 
beginning 19 14. 



Bull. 56, Hygienic Laboratory. 




A MODERN HIGH-CLASS PASTEURIZING PLANT. 

The following manufacturers and agents deal especially in 
pasteurizing apparatus : — 

BARRY-WEHMILLER MACHINERY CO.. 21st & Walnut Sts., St. 
Louis, Missouri. 

Makers of Continuous machines for Pasteurizing bottles filled 
with milk and sealed tight. These machines have been exten- 
sively used heretofore for Pasteurizing beer. Adaptations of the 
same for Milk Pasteurization is a new development. 

CORNISH, CURTIS & GREENE MFG. CO., Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. 
Makers of the Farrington Pasteurizing Machine. No reply re- 
ceived to recent letter of inquiry concerning their machine. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 197 

CREAMERY PACKAGE MFG. COMPANY, Albany, New York. 
Makers of the Wizard Pasteurizing Machine. Used for Bulk 
Pasteurization and consists of three sanitary vats identical with 
each other and each equipped with a spiral disc coil for heating 
and agitating and is usually associated with a Continuous Cooler 
of the disc type that has three compartments, the first two being 
used for cooling with water and the last for brine. 

CROWN, CORK & SEAL CO., Baltimore, Maryland. 

They make a form of seal for special bottles that render them 
air-tight and permits the bottles thus sealed to be emersed in 
water or subjected to vapors of steam. This form of seal is used 
in the process of Pasteurization known as the Spray System where 
water is heated and pumped over cases of bottled milk, stacked 
one upon the other. This company furnishes bottles and seals and 
has agreements with certain manufacturers of Pasteurizing ma- 
chines for furnishing complete outfits. ' 

DAIRY MACHINERY & CONSTRUCTION CO., Derby, Con- 
necticut. 

Makers of the Progress and Willmann Regenerative Pasteurizers, 
which are used for Bulk Pasteurization and consist of a heating 
cylinder and a holding machine. 

JENSEN MANUFACTURING CO., 154 Lake St, Chicago, Illinois. 
Reported to be manufacturers of machines used for pasteurizing 
cream for butter-making purposes. No reply received to recent 
letter. 

THE LOEW MANUFACTURING CO, Madison Ave. and W. 90th 
St, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Makers of Intermittent machines for Pasteurizing bottles filled 
with milk and sealed tight. These machines have been extensively 
used heretofore for Pasteurized beer, but a few plants have lately 
been equipped for Milk Pasteurization. Experiments are now 
being made for the company by Dr. Charles North, New York City. 

MILLER PASTEURIZING MACHINE CO, Canton, Ohio. 

Makers of the Miller Pasteurizing Machine. No reply received 
to recent letter. 

A. H. REID CREAMERY AND DAIRY SUPPLY CO, 69th and 
Haverford Ave, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

Makers of Regenerative and Continuous Pasteurizers. The Con- 
tinuous Pasteurizer consists of a vat, Pasteurizer (which is a 
cylindrical vessel of three copper cases), and an aerator or a 
Combination Expansion Cooler, the upper section of which is 
used for milk and the lower section for brine or ammonia. 



198 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



HENRY E. WRIGHT & SONS, 50 Spice St., (Charlestown Dist.), 
Boston, Mass. 

Agents for pasteurizers. Also agents for coolers, milk .bottles, 
fillers, washing powder, separators, bottle caps, Babcock testers; 
and they manufacture a variety of cans, milk pails, bottle fillers, 
milk chests. 

P. R. ZIEGLER & COMPANY, 7 Merchants Row, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Various forms of apparatus for the supply of dairies and cow 
barns. Special agents for D. H. Burrell & Co. of Little Falls, 
N. Y. Milking machines and dairy apparatus. 



Supervision of Bottling and Pasteurizing Plants 

Bull. 56, Hygienic Laboratory. 




A VERY NEAT, INEXPENSIVE, SMALL, BOTTLING ROOM. 

By the present methods of supplying milk to Lawrence a Bott- 
ling plant usually serves for several farms ; one, in fact, serves for 
twenty-eight farms. For reasons that I have tried to point out, it 
is more important even to have the Bottling plant safe than the 
farm. The Bottling plant is an intermediary between the farmer 
and the consumer. 



202 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The Bottling plant should receive, bottle and transmit milk 
without adding any form of impurity or contamination. The re- 
sponsibility it bears in relation to public health should be evident to 
the milk contractor who runs the Bottling plant and especially should 
this responsibility be appreciated by the City Board of Health, which 
heretofore in Lawrence has done practically nothing in inspecting 
or investigating these plants which contribute favorably or unfavor- 
ably to Public Health. I earnestly recommend that more attention 
be given to the sanitary conditions of milk Bottling plants. 

Plate 3 shows a proposed plan for a Modern Milk House. This 
is intended to be a practicable and reasonable lay-out, suitable for 
an average-sized milk farm. Milk is received at one end of the 
building, passes in order through cooling, bottling, pasteurizing, 
iceing, storing, and afterwards to the delivery door. Here also are 
received empty bottles which in turn are washed, sterilized and 
passed along to the Bottling room. The arrows indicate the order 
of passing milk and empty bottles through the various processes. 

Inspection of Dairies. 

The City can properly supervise Bottling and Heating plants 
but it is expensive and inexpedient for any city to inspect all the 
milk plants that send milk to that city. As we see in the case of 
Lawrence a large number of these farms are 150 to 200 miles away 
and in the states of Maine and Vermont. Large contractors who 
handle these distant supplies buy in large quantities and from many 
farms; then, they mix the supplies in pasteurizing and blending 
processes and deliver part of the general supply to Lawrence and 
perhaps part to Boston or other cities. 

Thus, for Lawrence to inspect these supplies at regular inter- 
vals and for Boston to do the same thing would involve dupli- 
cation. I should recommend that, for the present, inspection be 
made of these distant dairies sufficient to ascertain their general 
sanitary qualities, thus to obtain assurance that these supplies are 
acceptable. But, finally, these inspections should doubtless be made 
by State Inspectors and it is recommended that the City urge the 
enactment of laws that will authorize inspection by State authorities. 



PLATE 3. 



/? MODERN MILK HOUSE 

Proposed floor plan and arranaementofeauihment. 



Chute. 




The size here shown iwou/d he suitable for hand/ in a from 300 
to 700 cjuarfs of mil k da/iu. 

For Certified Milk the wa//s,f/oors,andceilinys shou/d be faced with 
piaster cement orsitnilar mater ial that can be washed and kept clean. 

For Inspected, and Market Milk a smooth interior surface of wood 
wcu/d be satisfactory, f? white surface assists in detectina dirt. 

The Lawrence Survey -Report on Pu/buc Health 

Lawrence, Mass., March 19/2 &. &, fO e^tcW^f^vrU^y' , C. & , 

Geo H/ Hinchcliffe, Del. 



204 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Laboratory Tests. 

Inspection of the dairies reaches to the very source of pollution. 
Milk that starts in a pure and clean condition from the farm should 
reach the consumer in a safe and healthful condition. Through the 
bottling station or in transportation, however, impurities are likely 
to enter the milk, and one way of detecting either dilution or 
pollution in milk is by Laboratory tests. Such tests are common 
procedures in nearly all large cities. The chemical tests can be 
easily made but the bacterial tests are more difficult and really re- 
quire the skill of a physician or bacteriologist. The laboratory in 
Lawrence is very well equipped and for a short time two years 
ago it was run effectively, but during the past year the Board of 
Health dismissed the City Bacteriologist and practically closed the 
laboratory. 

It should be used each day for tests of milk. Samples should 
be taken by the City Inspector of Milk, from delivery teams, from 
stores, railroad stations, hotels and ice-cream plants. These sam- 
ples should show by tests a quality equal to the standards set by 
law. Laboratory tests afford a convenient way of testing the qual- 
ity of milk that is being sold. By such tests poor quality or neglect 
in cleanliness can be detected, and sometimes the beginnings of an 
epidemic can be accurately forecast. 

Not only should laboratory tests of milk be made but as with 
dairy inspections I believe that the public should know the results 
of these tests. 

Publicity and Prices. 

I recommend that the City adopt the method of publishing 
the results of dairy inspections and laboratory tests that has been 
used in Wheeling, West Virginia; Rochester, N. Y. ; Richmond, 
Virginia; South Orange, New Jersey and elsewhere. 

Similarly in the way of publicity I recommend that all milk 
that is offered for sale in bottles, or cans, be plainly labeled as 
Certified Milk, Inspected Milk Heated or Market Milk Heated. 
The object of labeling would be primarily to inform the con- 
sumers of the grade of milk that is being sold; but it would have 



THE MILK SUPPLY 205 

another object: It would enable the producer who supplies a 
first-class grade of milk to get more for it than for a common 
grade. Should not some advantage thus come to the farmer who 
has a clean barn, a clean milk room, and sells clean milk? 

Furthermore to encourage the safe farmer and restrain the 
reckless one it is believed that licenses, or permits, should be re- 
quired as carefully of milk dealers as of plumbers or chauffeurs — 
in fact, milk dealers may offer a greater peril to public health 
than any of the other public servants. During the years 19 10 and 
the first half of 191 1 few milk licenses were issued in the City. 
Many of the milkmen claim that they called twice or three times 
at the City office but could not obtain licenses. The importance 
of the milk business demands licenses if they are to be required 
for any public health measures. 

Sample form of Publicity Report. 

BOARD OF HEALTH 

Report of Milk Examination, June i, 1913 



r ats 


Solids 


Bacteria 


Dairy 
Score 








% 


% 


per c. c. 




4.2 


I4-63 


80,000 




4-1 


12.75 


500,000 


72.5 


3-9 


12.95 


95,000 




4-1 


13.02 


65,000 




4-3 


12.66 


100,000 


75-4 



Name of Milkman : John Smith, East Dracut. 

This is a small place. New bain is needed. 14 cows. Good care is maintained. 

1913 

January- 
February 
March 
April 
June 
July 
August 

Notes Butter fats and solids : The Massachusetts State requirements are for 
fats 3.25 per cent; for solids, 12.15 per cent. The cream line and butter fats are 
less important than total solids, and both are less important than cleanliness. 

Bacteria : Milk containing large quantities of bacteria turns sour more quickly 
than clean milk. A high bacterial count may occur from accidental causes in a 
single sample without condemning the general quality of the whole supply, but, 
if habitual, it indicates unsanitary methods on the part of the milkman. Milk 
produced under good sanitary conditions should not show more than 35,000 
bacteria to the cubic centimeter. To obtain a low and favorable bacterial count, 
have clean conditions everywhere, remove the milk from the stable immediately 
after milking and keep it on ice. 

Dairy score: A perfect score is 100 points. 40 is the lowest score that is 
passable. 90 is required for a dairy to be classed as " Certified," and 65 as 
" Inspected." 



206 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Business Organization of Producers. 

Many of the foregoing recommendations of this report could 
be embodied in City ordinances and enforced by the Board of 
Health, but often compulsory compliance with rules and regula- 
tions does not lead to complete success, and furthermore sugges- 
tions that involve much outlay could not be expected of some of the 
small farms. For example, I have recommended that all milk ex- 
cept Certified Milk be heated or pasteurized. That is a process that 
cannot be successfully accomplished at each farm. It should be done 
at some central plant. Such a plant could afford numerous advan- 
tages to producers, and the question arises, Could the producers 
own and operate this central plant themselves? The difficulties in 
organizing the producers seem to be a drawback. Several of them 
have said to me, " the producers will not pull together " — and 
undoubtedly there is some truth in the statement. But Erie, Penn- 
sylvania, has a central Producer's Association that is claimed to be 
successful and ought it not to be possible to have similar success 
in Lawrence ? In Homer, New York, there is also an organization 
of milk farms which is being directed by Dr. Charles North of 
New York along a mutual, or cooperative, basis. 

The Association in Erie, I am informed by the President, was 
started twelve years ago. Sixty-five farmers formed a Stock Com- 
pany and signed a five-year contract to deliver all their milk to 
one central plant. An old market house was first utilized, but later 
a special building was erected in the center of the city, convenient 
to steam and electric cars. Milk as received here is inspected for 
odor, and at least once a week it is tested for butter-fats, solids, 
adulteration and impurities. After being sampled the milk is fil- 
tered, or passed through a separator, then heated or pasteurized. 
Afterwards, a large part of it is bottled and delivered to customers 
the day received, or the day following. Besides selling common 
milk and cream, the Association makes butter, dry curd, schmier- 
kase, and considerable ice-cream. All deliveries throughout the 
city are made from this central Plant. 

About 10,000 quarts of milk are received daily, much of 
which comes from non-members and in some cases forty miles by 



THE MILK SUPPLY 207 

trolley. Fifty men are employed, twenty-three being regular 
drivers and five special. During the first year, in 1900, the 
business amounted to $100,000. During 1909 it was $225,000. 
The association handles now about one-half of the milk business 
of the City. Each month the producers receive $10,000 for milk. 
The stock originally sold for $50 per share, but, I understand 
that it cannot be purchased for anything like that amount at 
present. 

The plan of organization was to issue stock to the producers. 
If a man had a milk route his business was taken over at the value 
of $3 a quart and in payment stock was given him at $50 a share. 
Each share entitled the holder to deliver into the Association 16 2-3 
quarts of milk per day. 

The advantages in having an association of this sort are : — 

(a) A gain in standardizing the products — milk, butter and ice- 
cream. 

(b) An improvement in quality. 

(c) Cooperative inspection of dairies and methods of handling 
milk. 

(d) Economy in delivery and number of employees. 

(e) Better market and better prices for producers than now exist. 

(f) Satisfactory provision for surplus of milk in rush seasons and 
for shortage in scant seasons. 

The President of the Erie Association believes that such an 
organization of producers could be formed to advantage in a city 
like Lawrence. There should be a central building that should have 
especially: A cement floor; abundant supply of pure water; rooms 
conveniently arranged; an equipment, for a plant of three to four 
thousand quarts daily, of a 25 horse-power boiler, 12 horse-power 
engine; a separator of capacity 700 to 800 pounds an hour; a pas- 
teurizer large enough to handle the whole supply of milk during 
the rush season; butter-making machinery of capacity at least for 
100 pounds of butter; machinery for making dry curd, schmier- 
kase, buttermilk, and especially modern appliances for making ice- 
cream which adds materially to the income. Such a building 
should be located near electric and steam railroads, and might serve 



208 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

for supplying, and washing, all milk cans and pails, and there 
should be a distinctiveness to the whole affair. The delivery 
wagons should be painted a uniform distinctive color; distinctive 
suits should be worn by the drivers; there should be distinctive 
cleanliness of the apparatus and the products furnished by the 
Association should be distinctively reliable; there should be dis- 
tinctive sanitary rules and regulations effectively enforced, thus 
to build up a business profitable to the farmer and helpful to the 
City. 

An association as described above, similar to one that has been 
tried and succeeded in another city, if put in operation in Law- 
rence should solve the major part of the milk question. It should 
afford the farmer a direct share in the whole profit from dairy 
to household; it should especially benefit the small producer who 
now claims to be sometimes "squeezed" by the milk contractor; 
it should provide for surplus milk and for shortage — two of the 
most troublesome phases of the milk business and especially trouble- 
some for small dealers; it should reduce the cost of delivery, now 
placed at two cents a quart, by one half; instead of a dozen dif- 
ferent milk teams racing up and down a street and drivers taking 
empty bottles from any or all of the back door steps, one team and 
one driver should cover all of one section; thus less noise and less 
vexation to residents; but such an association should be favored 
by the City authorities; it would tend at once to better sanitary 
regulations. The small milk dealer, who has perhaps a dozen 
cows and a kitchen or a cellar for a bottling room cannot be ex- 
pected to put in appliances for bottle washing, sterilizing, or more- 
over for pasteurizing which undoubtedly is going to be required 
in the near future, but an association controlled by fellow pro- 
ducers of which he owns a part would ensure him a good market 
and fair treatment, and enable him to comply with modern de- 
mands. 

Can such an organization be formed? It seems possible to 
me but, as I have said, some of the producers doubt if many of 
their number would agree to unite. In order to ascertain what 
can be done, I would suggest that a canvass be made among the 
producers interested and should it finally be found impracticable 



THE MILK SUPPLY 209 

to organizers the producers, I would suggest that a similar con- 
solidation of interests be effected by the milk contractors. At 
present there are fifteen or more such contractors supplying milk 
in Lawrence. I believe that better results could be obtained in 
the healthfulness of products, and in economy of collecting, 
bottling and delivering by having modern apparatus, fewer and 
larger plants. Instead of fifteen, three to five would be preferable. 
The advantages of consolidation and a central plant will doubtless 
be quickly appreciated by contractors, but in proposing the plan 
I have had foremost in mind the interests of the producers. They 
should benefit first and it is to be hoped that they will be leaders 
in promoting the movement, yet it would seem to be practicable 
and in fact advisable to include in the association contractors and 
business men of the city who could aid in managing and financing 
the undertaking in the best possible manner. I earnestly advise 
the producers to discuss the plan as outlined above, to appoint a 
committee to examine into the feasibility of it, and to ascertain 
exactly what farmers are willing to cooperate. 

List of Producers who supply milk to Lawrence: — 

(The towns are arranged alphabetically and in each town the 
names of producers are given alphabetically.) 

These farms are shown on Plate II, that is designated Milk 
Farms near Lawrence. They include all farms from which milk 
is delivered by teams to Lawrence. Greatest distance of any farm 
from the center of the city is seven and a half miles. Total amount 
of milk supplied by these farms, about 16,000 quarts per day. 



NDOVER 




Qt 


s. daily 


C. J. Bliss, 


Sells to C. D. Glennie, 




50 


E. W. Burtt, 


C. D. Glennie, 




25 


Sam. D. Berry, 


C. A. Stone, 




30 


Jno. J. Crowley, 


Sells to various stores, 




75 


Geo. M. Carter, 


C. D. Glennie, 




100 


W. J. Clark, 


J. L. Noyes, 




30 


Luke Collins, 


H. Taryzian, 




30 


J. Dagdigian, 


Sells to H. Taryzian, 




98 


Dan. F. Donovan, 


G. C. H. Dufton, 


and C. D. 





210 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



Dan. Fitzpatrick, 

J. W. Godin, 

A. Kasabian, 

Jos. T. Lovejoy, 
P. E. Livingstone, 

J. L. Noyes, 

Shattuck Bros. 
Manuel Silva, 
James Suitor, 
Frank Smith, 
Chas. A. Stone, 

A. R. Stevens, 

Hudson E. Wilcox, 
R. A. Watson, 
George D. Ward, 



Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

Sells directly to consumers, 

Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from another dairy, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to Antonio Mello, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to J. Robinson, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from other dairies, 
Sells to C. A. Stone, 

Sells to Antonio Mello, 
C. D. Glennie, 
Wood Mill Restaurant, 
(160 qts. produced in all) 



Qts. 



daily 

50 

80 
ISO 

80 
60 

40 
30 

400 

85 
120 

175 

40 
150 

70 

100 
60 
40 



AUBURN, ME. 

Turner Centre Dairying Association, 

Receives from other dairies, 4000 

(See Contractor's List for statement regarding the supply.) 



BOXFORD 

J. G. Chandler, 
J. W. Chadwick, 
Thomas Downes, 
Charles Gardner, 
Charles M. Moulton, 
J. Henry Nason, 
Myron Pearl, 
J. C. Whitney, 

DERRY, N. H. 

H. P. Hood & Sons, 



Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie. 



Sell directly to consumers from the 
Hood Farm, 

(See Contractor's List for statement of the balance 
of their supply.) 



DRACUT 

Kelle Brox, 



Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from other dairies, 



30 

300 

So 

60 

55 

100 

100 

50 



TO 



100 

200 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



211 



HAVERHILL 

E. S. Blodgett, 
G. A. Mills, 
E. M. Nason, 





Qts. daily 


Sells to W. O. Putnam, 


50 


S. Taylor, 


IOO 


W. O. Putnam, 


150 



LAWRENCE 

Theobold Daley, 



Sells directly to consumers, 



150 



METHUEN 

Geo. M. Adams, 



E. L. Bragdon, 

B. Boornazian, 

Jos. Bedard, 

Batty Bros. 
Cyril Bedard, 
Mrs. A. Ball, 
Wm. Bodwell, 
Barker Estate, 
Bishop, 

Louis S. Cox, 
Patrick Cox, 

F. L. Currier, 
D. F. Donnelly, 
A. C. Clough, 

Frank Dietzel, 
J. F. Donovan, 

W. M. Dooley, 
Joseph E. Dowding, 

Wm. P. Fogg, 

G. E. Flanders, 

F. W. Foster, 
Fred L. Gardner, 

Frank W. George, 
Henry Griffin, 



Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from M. Garabedian 
S. Garabedian, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from another dairy, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from G. O. Stevens, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from Cyril Bedard, 
Sells to J. T. Roche, 

Jos. Bedard, 

Chas. Nimmo, 

A. C. Clough, 

J. B. Richardson, 
Sells directly to consumers, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from another dairy, 
Sells to F. Gardner, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells directly to consumers, 

Sells to C. Bleicher, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from another dairy, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to Peter Alford, 

Sells to W. E. Ralton, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from J. E. Merrill, 
Sells to W. E. Ralton, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from F. L. Currier, 
Sells to C. Bleicher, 
Peter Alford, 



and 



70 

55 

325 
30 

130 
80 

380 
60 

225 
60 
60 

25 
40 
30 

250 

140 

20 

35 
200 

95 

5o 
130 

30 
220 
120 

80 
160 

35 
40 

130 

35 

120 

no 



212 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



F. H. Giles, 
J. E. Griffin, 
Harry Harris, 



Qts. daily 
140 
80 



Hurzenger Bros., 

M. S. Hill, 

Harnisch Bros., 
John M. Hoh, 

Jarman, 
Chas. Kitchin, 

Fred H. Miller, 
Edward Moreau, 
J. T. Merrill, 
Gustave Miller, 
Meth. Town Farm, 
Morse Bros., 
I. Nelson, 
Charles Nimmo, 

Fra,nk C. Perley, 
Petzold Bros., 
J. B. Richardson, 

Edmond Richardson, 

J. A. Shea, 
G. Simonian, 
Scannell Bros., 

C. A. Stevens, 

G. O. Stevens, 

E. D. Taylor, 

G. Taylor, 

W. E. Williams, 
Horace Whittier, 
G. K. Webster, 
A. G. Wood, 

J. IT. Welch, 
Walter Welch. 



Sells directly to consumers, 

Sells to Peter Alford, 

Sells directly to consumers, 

Receives from C. W. Colburn, Ar- 
thur Emerson, Chas. Fossie, John 
Quigley, Patrick Quigley, H. S. 
Russ, G. B. Smith, and John 
Mansfield, 

Sell to C. Bleicher, 

Sells directly to consumers and to 
John Hoh, 

Sell directly to consumers, 

Sells directly to consumers, 

Receives from M. S. Hill, 

Sells to Frank Duffin, 

Sells to druggist, 

(100 produced in all) 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to G. E. Flanders, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to E. Moreland, 
Sell to R. W. Carleton, 
Sells to R. E. Carleton, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from Mrs. A. Ball, 
Sells to S. Taylor, 

A. C. Clough, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from other dairies, 
Sells to Jos. Edwards, 

Sells to C. Bleicher, 

A. Torisi, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from other dairies, 
Sells to F. Duffin and J. Edwards, 
Sells to B. Boornazian, 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Sells to S. Taylor, 
Sells directly to consumers, 450 

Sells to R. E. Ralton, 280 

Sells directly to consumers, 250 

Sells directly to consumers, 50 

Receives from other dairies, 45 

Sells to Moreland, 20 

Sells to Moreland, 20 



350 



390 
60 

200 
300 
190 
40 
40 
50 

375 
190 

35 

40 

120 

200 

35 
70 
60 
80 
70 
60 
40 
100 

55 
125 
175 

30 
160 
170 

450 
80 



THE MILK SUPPLY 



213 



NORTH ANDOVER 
Chas. Appleton, 
Jacob Barker, 
Jesse Coe, 

Mrs. James A. Davis, 
(A. M. Robinson, Mgr.) 
John Driscoll, 
George Eglofe, 

J. F. Foster, 
Chas. D. Frost, 
Bes. W. Farnum, 
Miss C A. French, 
Orrin Foster, 
Nathan Foster, 

James Glennie, 
E. F. Leland, 
N. A. Town Farm, 
C. A. Newhall, 

Wm. W. Phelps, 
J. C. Poor, 

Calvin Rea, 
George A. Rea, 
Orris Rea, 
A. Rogers, 
Richard Russell, 
A. M. Robinson, 

L. R. Starrett, 

E. R. Tucker, 

A. N. Talbot, 

H. M. Whittier, 
Mrs. H. M. Whitney, 

PELHAM, N. H. 

Chas. W. Coburn, 
Arthur Emerson, 
Charles Foisie, 

John Mansfield, 
W. Morrison, 
Patrick Quigley, 
John Quigley, 
H. S. Russ, 



Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
M. McDermott, 
P. J. Doherty, 

Sells directly to consumers, 

Sells to C A. Stone, 

Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from A. N. Talbot, 
Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 
P. F. Doherty, 
M. McDermott, 
C. D. Glennie, 
C. D. Glennie, 

C. D. Glennie 

W. O. Putnam, 
Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

P. J. Doherty, 
Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

Otto Mitzner, 

Sells to C. D. Glennie, 

G. Hatem, 

P. Doherty, 

W. Putman, 

M. McDermott, 
(See Mrs. James A. Davis.) 

Sells to P. J. Doherty, 

Sells to C. D. Glennie, 
Geo. Eglofe, 

C. D. Glennie, 
M. McDermott, 



Qts. daily 

30 

90 

120 

240 

50 

40 
130 
120 

7o 

30 
240 
100 

50 
150 
100 

30 
12s 

35 
275 
100 
100 

55 
120 
290 

25 

50 
90 

50 
25 



Sells to Harris Bros., 
Sells to Harris Bros., 
Sells directly to consumers, 
Receives from other dairies, 
Sells to Harris Bros., 
Sells to R. E. Carlton, 
Sells to Harris Bros., 

Harris Bros., 

Harris Bros. & Moreland, 



55 
50 
30 
300 
70 
20 
40 
60 
90 



214 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



Geo. B. Smith, 
Henry E. Titcomb, 
Edward Young, 
SALEM, N. H. 

Margaret Barry, 
Samuel Beauche, 
George A. Brown, 
Brady Bros. 
F. H. Coran & Son, 
B. E. Davis, 
R. H. Dunbar, 
Isaac Emerson, 
S. W. Forsythe, 
H. P. Findeison, 



M. Garabedian, 
S. Garabedian, 
David Hird, 



J. C. Hazeltine, 
A. Kinzler, 
A. G. Kelley, 
Kachadorian Bros. 
J. Learmonth, 
W. A. Littlejohn, 

L. A. Machan, 
Arthur Mitzner, 
J. A. C. Machay, 

E. J. Manor, 
William Turner, 

F. L. Woodbury, 



Harris Bros., 
R. E. Carlton, 
R. E. Carlton, 



Qts. daily 
40 
50 
no 



R. E. Carlton, 80 

R. E. Carlton, 15 

R. E. Carlton, 40 

H. P. Findeison, 160 

Sells directly to consumers, 160 

Sells to D. Hird, 45 

Sells directly to consumers, 200 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 50 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 30 

Sells directly to consumers, 30 

Receives from Brady Bros., A. G. 

Kelley, Albin Kinzler, 250 

Sells to G. M. Adams, 30 

G. M. Adams, 25 

Sells directly to consumers, 20 

Receives from A. E. Davis, J. C. 

Hazeltine, E. J. Manor, 145 

Sells to David Hird, 50 

Sells to H. P. Findeison, 45 

H. P. Findeison, 45 

F. Jedziniak, 90 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 50 

Sells directly to consumers, 85 

Sells to another dairy, 30 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 10 

H. P. Findeison, 50 

R. E. Carlton, 60 

D. Hird, 50 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 50 

Sells to R. E. Carlton, 35 



List of Contractors who Buy all of the Milk 
that they supply : 

(Names are arranged alphabetically by towns in accordance with 
location of bottling plants.) 
ANDOVER 

G. Dufton buys from D. F. Donovan 50 quarts daily. 

Antonio Mello buys from Manuel Silva 85 quarts daily; from 

H. E. Wilcox, 100. Total, 185. 
H. E. Wilcox, 100; Total, 185. 

H. Taryzian buys from John Dagdigian 90 quarts daily; from 
Luke Collins, 30. Total, 120. 



THE MILK SUPPLY 21 j 

AUBURN, MAINE 

Turner Center Dairying Association receives milk from 281 
dairies in the vicinity of Rumford Falls, Maine. (See Plate I.) 
(Milk as shipped to Lawrence is mostly skim-milk, and cream.) 
Total, 4000 quarts daily. 

BOXFORD 

No contractors located here, who buy all of their supply. 

DERRY, N. H. 

H. P. Hood & Sons receive milk for Lawrence and Boston from 
45 dairies in Londonderry, Hudson, Windham and Pelham and 
deliver of this amount in Lawrence, 965 quarts daily. 

They also receive milk from 63 dairies in towns between New- 
port and Wells River, Vermont, and deliver in Lawrence, 2550 
quarts daily. (See Plate I.) Total, 3515. 

HAVERHILL 

No contractors located here, who buy all of their supply. 

METHUEN 

Peter Alford buys from Jos. R. Dowding 120 quarts daily; from 

Henry Griffin, no; from J. E. Griffin, 80. Total, 310. 
C. B. Bleicher buys from Frank Dietzel, 50 quarts daily; from 

Frank W. George, 120; from Huizinger Bros., 60; from Mrs. 

J. A. Shea, 55- Total, 285. 
A. C. Clough buys from W. Bodwell 25 quarts daily; from Petzold 

Bros., 70. Total, 95. 
R. E. Carleton buys from Isaac Emerson 50 quarts daily; from 

Samuel Beauche, 15; from G. A. Brown, 40; from J. Learmonth, 

50; from J. A. C. Mackay, 60; from H. E. Titcomb, 50; from 

Wm. Turner, 80; from F. L. Woodbury, 35; from Edward 

Young, no; from Morse Bros., 200; from L. A. Mecham, 10; 

from J. S. W. Forsythe, 30; from M. Barry, 80. Total, 810. 
F. Duffin buys from C. A. Stevens 170 quarts daily; from Jarman, 

40. Total, 210. 
Jos. Edwards buys from G. O. Stevens 80 quarts daily; from 

Edmond Richardson, 100; from Joseph Barrie, R. Griffin, C. 

Young. Total, 310. 
F. Jedziniak buys from Kashadoorian Bros. 90 quarts daily. 
Henry Jacob & Son buy from Edmond Richardson 35 quarts 

daily; from Long, 50; from Whittaker Bros., 140; from Geo. 

A. Trumpold, 13. Total, 238. 
Otto Mintzner buys from J. C. Poor 275 quarts daily. 
E. Moreland buys from Methuen Town Farm 120 quarts daily; 

from J. J. Welch, 20; from Walter Welch, 20; from H. S. Russ, 

45. Total, 205. 
S. Taylor buys from George Taylor 80 quarts daily; from G. A. 

Mills, 100; from F. C. Perley, 80. Total, 260. 



216 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

NORTH ANDOVER 

P. J. Doherty buys from Jesse Coe 120 quarts daily; from B. W. 

Farnum, 30; from C. A. Newhall, 125; from Orris Rea, 55; 

from L. R. Starrett, 25. Total, 355. 
C. D. Glennie buys in Andover, from C. J. Bliss 50 quarts daily; 

from E. W. Burtt, 25; from G. M. Carter, 100; from D. F. 

Donovan, 50; from D. Fitzpatrick, 50; from J. W. Godin, 80; 

from P. E. Livingstone, 60; from J. T. Lovejoy, 80; from G. D. 

Ward, 40; from R. A. Watson, 60. 
In Boxford, from J. G. Chandler, 30 quarts daily; from Thos. 

Downes, 50; from Chas. Gardner, 60; from C. M. Moulton, 55; 

from J. H. Nason, 100; from M. Pearl, 100; from J. C. Whit- 
ney, 50. 
In North Andover, from Chas. Appleton, 30 quarts daily; from 

J. F. Foster, 120; from N. Foster, 50; from O. Foster, 100; from 

C. D. Frost, 70; from J. Glennie, 150; from N. A. Town 

Farm, 30; from W. W. Phelps, 35; from Calvin Rea, 100; from 

E. R. Tucker, 50; from H. M. Whittier, 50. Total, 1825. 
Michael McDermott buys from Jacob Barker 90 quarts daily; 

from Miss C A. French, 240; from Richard Russell, 290; from 

Mrs. H. M. Whitney, 25. Total, 645. 
W. C Putnam buys from E. S. Blodgett 50 quarts daily; from 

E. F. Leland, 100; from E. M. Nason, 150; from A. Rogers, 120. 

Total, 420. 

LAWRENCE 

G. Hatem buys from George A. Rea 100 quarts daily. 

J. T. Roche buys from Batty Bros. 225 quarts daily. 

W. E. Ralton buys from W. C. Fogg 80 quarts daily; from F. W. 

Foster, 40; from H. Whittier, 280. Total, 400. 
A. Torisi buys from G. Simonian 125 quarts daily. 
Wood Mill Restaurant buys from Wm. M. Wood 140 quarts daily. 

PELHAM, N. H. 

No contractors located here who buy all of their supply. 

SALEM, N. H. 

No contractors located here who buy all of their supply. 

Total amount of milk furnished to Lawrence by the above con- 
tractors is 15,193 quarts per day; or five-eighths of the total milk supply. 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF LAWRENCE AND ITS 
RELATION TO THE PUBLIC HEALTH * 

Brief Statement of Conditions : 

Lawrence takes its water from the Merrimack River; a very 
foul source, but, by excellent methods of nitration, it is made, 
not only equal in purity and healthfulness to the water supply of 
the average Massachusetts city, but it is superior to many. The 
percentage of sickness and death by diseases that are transmitted 
by water has materially decreased since filtration was started. 

Source of Supply: 

The Waterworks plant is located on the north bank of the 
Merrimack River, and about three quarters of a mile above the 
dam and South Broadway, which connects North and South 
Lawrence. The river water carries many impurities, a serious 
part of which is sewage that enters the river from cities upstream. 
These cities include Franklin, Laconia. Manchester and Nashua in 
the State of New Hampshire, and Fitchburg, Leominster and 
Lowell in Massachusetts. These towns and cities have an aggre- 
gate population of two hundred and fifty thousand and none of the 
sewage is purified before it enters the river. Lowell, with its 
population of 107,000 is located eleven miles above Lawrence. It 
has been estimated that the amount of sewage that enters the river 
and its branches is over one gallon per six hundred gallons of 
water flowing. 

Filtration : 

The problem of transforming this impure and dangerous 
water supply into a potable and safe drinking water was in reality 
solved in 1893 when Slow Sand Filters were first installed. 
Previously, typhoid fever and death rates in Lawrence had been 
alarmingly high, but immediately after the filters were put in 

* Many of the facts in this chapter were compiled by Mr. J. J. Haley in an 
engineering thesis taken in conjunction with this Survey. 



PLATE «4. 



Deaths per / OOO population 




(0 


«0 


* 


*0 


OJ 


«». 


o 


<M 


<\l 


<\J 


<\J 


<\J 


H 


<\J 



Deaths per I OOO population 



THE WATER SUPPLY 



2ig 



operation, both the cases of typhoid and the total deaths from all 
causes were materially reduced. The death rate and averages are 
clearly shown by the diagrams of Plate 4. The increase in rate 
from 1886 to 1893 * s indicated by the first straight line of 
averages that is shown steadily ascending. Similarly the decrease 
in rate since 1894 to the present time is shown by the second 
straight line of averages steadily descending. 

Comparison of the death rate in Lawrence with that of other 
Massachusetts cities is given by the U. S. Census. For Lawrence 
the rate in 1910 was 17.7 per cent per 1000 population; and of 
the fifty-five largest cities in the State ten have equal, or higher 
death rates as follows: Chelsea 18.8; Fall River 18.4; Holyoke 
17.7; Lowell 19.7; Milford 18.3; New Bedford 18.6; Newbury- 
port 18.7; Northampton 18.9; Taunton 23.3, and Westfield 18.7.- 
The average of the fifty-five cities is 15.9. The lowest is that of 
Winthrop, 10.2. 

The reduction in death rates in Lawrence compares favorably 
with results that have occurred in other cities where changes have 
been made from a polluted to an unpolluted water supply. The 
following interesting comparison has been made by Mr. Allen 
Hazen, Engineer of New York: 

Reduction in death rate per 100,000 population by changing 
from a polluted to an unpolluted water supply : 



City 


Location 


How 
changed 


Date of 
change 


5 years 
before change 


5 years 
after change 


Reduction 
in 5 years 


Hamburg 


Germany 


Filtration 


1892 




2400 


1770 


630 


Albany 


New York 


River water 


1899 




2330 


1840 


390 


Newark 


New Jersey 


to 
upland water 


1892 




2510 


2200 


300 


Jersey City 


" 


" 


1896 




2540 


1930 


610 


Lowell 


Mass. 


River water 
to ground watei 


- 1893 




2510 


2050 


460 


Lawrence 


Mass. 


Filtration 


1893 




2440 


2000 
Average, 


442 

472 



A reduction in the death rate of 442 for five years with a 
population of 100,000 corresponds to 359 for a population of 
81,200 as Lawrence has averaged for the past five years. I 
believe that it does not overstate the facts to say that, with the 



220 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

present population, nitration is saving from 350 to 400 lives every 
year, besides a greater saving would occur in years that might 
have epidemics as were common before the filters were installed. 

Not only has nitration reduced in measurable terms the total 
death rate of the City and the sickness and death due to typhoid 
fever, but unquestionably many minor ailments; diarrhoea, 
dysentery, stomach disorders have been greatly reduced and the 
health and working strength of all the people have been promoted 
by having a water supply that is made reasonably pure. Confidence 
in the quality of the water, however, is not as general throughout 
the City as it should be, and, in many offices, stores, and residences, 
spring water, or pseudo-spring water, is drunk instead of city 
water. This water is delivered is bottles from a variety of places 
and with very little sanitary oversight on the part of the farmer 
or dealer supplying it, the consumer, or the Board of Health. I 
believe that these supplies have become so extended that all of 
them should be examined and regulations prescribed and enforced 
that will insure more protection of the public health against 
possible epidemics. 

In addition to the direct benefits that the City has derived 
from filtration, there are several indirect benefits that should be 
mentioned. 

The filter of 1893 was the ^ rs ^ noteworthy one used in this 
country for the removal of bacteria. The following excellent 
results were obtained even from the beginning: 

In water In effluent of Per cent of 

Year applied to filter at pumping reduction by passing 

filters pumping station through filter 

1894 10,800 per cc. 1 50 per cc. 98.6 

1895 11,000 120 98.9 

1896 7,600 no 98.6 

1897 10,900 57 995 

1898 4,400 65 98.5 

1899 5,800 55 99-i 

Many engineers of this country and from abroad, came to 
investigate the filters. They published reports and spoke far and 
wide of the methods and success of the Lawrence filters. This 
all benefited the City. 



THE WATER SUPPLY 221 

The Value of Pure Water. 

Sanitary engineers agree that sickness and death in any com- 
munity should not increase above reasonable limits and whenever 
the percentage becomes abnormal, it means an economic loss that 
generally must be charged to the water supply. A common method 
of estimating the expense of impure water is by means of the 
typhoid death rate. For example, the death rate by typhoid fever 
from 1885 to 1893, before filtration was introduced, was 91.8 each 
year for 100,000 population; from 1895 to 1910, after filtration 
was put in operation, the death rate became 24.4, or a saving of 
67.4 lives per 100,000 population. This would correspond to a 
saving of 44.2 lives each year for an average population of 65,780, 
as in Lawrence. A human life is estimated at an average value of 
$10,000 by some of the best authorities, but placing it conservatively 
at $5,000, the saving of 44.2 lives should mean a money value of 
$221,000 per year. But accompanying each death by typhoid, there- 
are on the average 4.5 cases of sickness and recovery. Each of 
these cases costs someone on the average $125 for medicine, nurses, 
and loss of wages, a total of 4.5 x$i25 x 44.2, or $24,862. Thus 
in reducing the typhoid death rate of 91.8 before filtration to 24.4 
since filtration, a conservative estimate of savings to the citizens 
would be about $220,000 per year for deaths and $25,000 per year 
for sickness, and this would be for one disease. The total cost 
of installing all of the filters and their accessories is given as 
$140,000; this outlay has been more than justified by the reduction 
of typhoid in a single year. The cost of operating the filters is 
recorded as $9,000 to $10,000 a year; even $10,000 a year since 
1893 would mean $180,000, approximately making a total cost of 
$370,000, which the savings by typhoid alone would provide for 
in one and a half years. 

Second only to quality of a water supply comes the question 
of quantity. Every town and city puts forth the common appeal 
for " an abundant supply of pure water." The adequacy of the 
present source of supply for Lawrence is unquestioned; so long as 
the Merrimac River has sufficient flow to furnish power for manu- 
facturing, there should be ample amount of water to satisfy reason- 
able demands of a public water supply. But as the population up 



222 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

stream increases and more sewerage is added, will the supply con- 
tinue to be acceptable for drinking purposes? What deterioration 
has already been observed? 

The State Board of Health is engaged in an extended investi- 
gation of the Merrimac River, and it appears from results so far 
announced that important changes in the quality of the water have 
not taken place in the past ten years. It is certainly undeniable, 
however, even if the processes of filtration are an effective barrier 
against sickness and disease, that a river which furnishes drinking 
water should not be used as an open sewer and a common dumping 
ground for two hundred and fifty thousand population. It is 
foolish to add sewage and pollution to a river and then proceed a 
few miles down stream to filter out this same pollution; yet this 
is exactly what is being done in the Lawrence case. Unfortunately, 
the same condition exists in many other localities in the United 
States, and a question before engineers at the present time is to 
provide reasonable means of sewage and refuse disposal for those 
large cities that now get rid of sewage by disposal without purifi- 
cation into rivers or other public waters. 

The present filters could be enlarged to meet the increasing 
need for more water. In fact, the Superintendent believes that the 
present filters are being operated about to their limit. He estimates 
that the open filters are doing about one-third and the new covered 
filters about two-thirds of the filtering, and that more filters will 
immediately be needed if the city is to continue to grow at its 
present rate. Considerable increase in the capacity of filters could 
be obtained by thoroughly overhauling the old filter and adding 
a masonry cover to obviate ice and increase its winter efficiency. 
Treatment of water by hypochlorite of lime is another possible way 
of allowing an increase in the rate of filtration. These matters, 
however, are principally engineering features and involve financial 
considerations. The adequacy of the pumping plant has recently 
been the subject of heated controversies in the City, and it has been 
decided to add a centrifugal pump that is to afford three million 
gallons a day additional capacity. The capacities of reservoirs, 
stand-pipes, and street mains do not directly affect public health 
and are not included in this investigation. 



THE WATER SUPPLY 223 

Conclusion : 

In conclusion, I wish to emphasize the success that has attended 
the methods of filtration that have been used here in Lawrence. 
The mortality rates have greatly improved since nitration began; 
serious epidemics of water-borne diseases have been eliminated, and 
many good reports have been sent out that show the results of the 
old and new filters. Such a record is creditable and helpful to the 
City. Those citizens that urged the installation of a filtration plant 
should feel satisfaction in witnessing the improved health condi- 
tions that have resulted; and especially should citizens, who, with 
honest purpose, at first opposed the proposed methods of filtration, 
now give proper credit for the distinct advantages that have accrued 
to Lawrence and other cities. 

The Sanitary Survey of 1850 

A Sanitary Survey of Lawrence would not be complete without 
some reference to the excellent survey of the State that was made 
in 1850 under the leadership of Lemuel Shattuck. This survey 
included the City of Lawrence, which had then been incorporated 
but three years. Throughout the report of the survey, which was 
published in a volume of 544 pages, there is expressed a keen appre- 
ciation of good health, its value to the individual, and to the city, 
its value morally, physically, and even financially. A better presenta- 
tion of the importance of public health is seldom found, as the 
following paragraph will show: 

" We believe that the conditions of perfect health, either 
public or personal, are seldom or never attained, though attain- 
able; — that the average length of human life may be very much 
extended, and its physical power greatly augmented; — that in 
every year, within this Commonwealth, thousands of lives are lost 
which might have been saved; — that tens of thousands of cases 
of sickness occur which might have been prevented; — that a vast 
amount of unnecessarily impaired health, and physical debility 
exists among those not actually confined by sickness; — that these 
preventable evils require an enormous expenditure and loss of 
money, and impose upon the people unnumbered and immeasur- 
able calamity, pecuniary, social, physical, mental, and moral, which 



224 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

might be avoided; — that means exist, within our reach, for the 
mitigation or removal; — and that measures for prevention will 
effect infinitely more than remedies for the cure of disease." 

Prevention undoubtedly will effect more benefit to all citizens 
than remedies, but prevention is difficult to instill into human 
practice. The person who has escaped scarlet fever, typhoid, or 
diphtheria, is apt to believe that others could escape in the same 
commonplace way that he has, provided they were willing to 
follow the same methods; whereas, the person who has been 
afflicted by any one of these diseases will usually admit the 
difficulty of escape and the ease of catching such infectious dis- 
eases. So that the question for governing bodies to decide is, 
" How shall the people as a whole be properly educated in means 
and methods of prevention? How shall the benefits be secured of: 

A safe water supply? 

A safe milk supply? 

Proper disposal of waste? 

The water supply of Lawrence I believe to be as favorable 
to public health as could be reasonably demanded. The milk 
supply, I believe, needs material improvement in the interest of 
public health; and the sewage' and garbage disposal methods are 
to be discussed in the pages that immediately follow. 



SEWAGE AND GARBAGE DISPOSAL* 

Brief Statement of Conditions. 

The sewage and garbage disposal methods involve two aspects 
of the question of Public Health that are of importance. The 
first is in regard to the disposal of sewage and waste into the 
Merrimack and Spicket Rivers, and the second is in regard to the 
disposal of ashes and rubbish on dumping grounds, and of kitchen 
refuse to swine. The present methods are the result of old customs 
that have been in use fifty years and more without noteworthy 
improvement. The chief objections to them now come from the 
fact that we know the causes of disease far better than we did 
fifty years ago. 

The Sewerage System. 

The sewerage system consists of a network of pipes that join 
into trunk sewers which empty either into the Merrimac River 
or its tributary, the Spicket River. See Plate 5. Most of these 
pipes receive both surface drainage and house sewage, although 
about one-eighth of the area within the limits of the City of 
Lawrence is on what is known as the " separate system," and 
receives only house sewage. Sewerage of Methuen joins with 
the Lawrence system principally at a point near the Arlington 
Mills, and flows through an intercepting sewer along the general 
course of the Spicket River, and empties into that river at the 
Garden Street bridge, a few hundred feet back from the outlet 
of the river. Thus into the Merrimack River from nine principal 
outlets, this sewage is discharged. There are a few outlets, how- 
ever, that are indefinite as to size, location, and contents. At the 
Pemberton Mill, there is one of the original sewers as put in by the 
Essex Co., that empties either into a race-way, or into one of the 
recently constructed sewers, and there is some doubt as to which 
of these hidden connections is at present being used. 

* Many of the facts concerning Garbage Disposal and the Disposal of Sewage 
into the Merrimack River were compiled by Mr. C. E. Williams in an engineering 
thesis taken in conjunction with this Survey. 



226 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Besides the regular sewer outlets as shown on the drawing, 
it was found by our inspection along the river banks that there 
are many other small drains that discharge into the rivers. Some 
are at the embankment walls above the water level, and others 
extend part way to the water's edge through pipes and various 
forms of open and closed channels. There seem to be no limita- 
tions in the use of this river for sewage purposes. From bank 
to bank, iooo feet in width, it is veritably an open depository for 
sewage and manufacturing waste. At the time of our inspection, 
in July, a boat was used to go from place to place, and by wearing 
rubber boots, we were able to enter some of the outlets, and 
traverse the river banks. These banks in many cases were coated 
with sludge and dried sewage which, besides being objectionable 
on account of offensive odors, afforded breeding-places for flies 
which, according to recent disclosures, are a greater menace to 
good health than has heretofore been understood. In many 
localities the sewage was observed in a decomposing state on the 
surface of the ground where it had been deposited by some outlet 
that did not properly extend to running water. These conditions 
would doubtless be alleviated after a high run of water had scoured 
the river banks, but, during the summer months, the conditions 
become offensive, and to a considerable extent dangerous to the 
health of mill operatives and employees who are required to 
work in such localities. 

Sewer Outlets. 

The following pictures, taken in July 191 1, show some of 
these outlets : 

The first view is an outlet at the rear of the Washington 
Mills that is believed to serve now one of the original sewers that 
was put in about 1848. As the photograph shows, the banks of 
the river near this outlet, at the time of our inspection, were 
cluttered with rubbish, pieces of wood, stone, tin cans, and vegeta- 
tion; much of which was exposed to filth from sewage. This 
sewer does not extend beyond the river wall and the channel from 
the wall to the river is one of the most neglected of any. 

The Lawrence Street outlet is at the rear of the Pacific Mills. 




The L/?h//?enc£ Survey 

By /Appropriations from the 
W/f/TE Fund 

Map *S ho wing 
DRrf/NrfGE /IRErfS 
Mrf/M SEWERS *»* OUTLETS 

Prepared for* 

Report on Investigation 

of 3 

F>UBLIG HCrtLTM 

<S<spren7ber~/9it 

S<zc7fe //nch = Z4-QO feet 

Uha,%<d / l ^•W/Z,WV~Zr~UVL/ l &•& • C.Z. Hudson Del 






SEWAGE DISPOSAL 



227 



As in the case of many other sewers the wall has been changed 
near the outlet — the keystone in place is dated 1874, and was 
formerly in another location. The sewer as now existing also 
took the place of one of the original sewers that was referred to 
in the Report of the Sanitary Commission of 1850 as " a large 
common sewer that admits surface drainage and underground 
sewerage, being is size six and one-half feet high, three feet wide, 
allowing- a man to walk erect, and constructed of brick laid in 




Banks nearby are much cluttered 



cement, and of stone masonry, passes under, and four feet below, 
the bed of the canal," following the course of a natural ravine. 
Sewage from this outlet — shown on the next page — goes 
directly into river water which extends up to the sewer at all times 
and obviates any serious objections. 

The principal outlet for the section of Lawrence that is north 
of the Merrimack River and west of the Boston and Maine Rail- 
road is under a fishway at the north end of the Broadway bridge. 
It is called the Water Street outlet. An open channel extends 



228 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



about 200 feet to the low-water course of the river. This channel 
becomes obstructed by the high run of the river nearly every 
Spring, and the City fails to keep it properly cleaned out. Its 
condition has caused objections in years past. At the time of our 
inspection I noted that: pools of stagnant sewage exist; the channel 
is more or less divided so that it is difficult to trace the exact course 
that is followed by the sewage from the outlet to the River; many 
of the rocks and ledges are moist and slimy, and some have thick 
coatings of dry and hardened sewage. 




A Sewer Outlet in the rear of the Pacific Mills. This Sewer 
took the place of the old Stone Sewer that was built 
by the Essex Company about 1848 or earlier 



Across the river there is an outlet known as the South Broad- 
way or Shanty Pond sewer outlet. From this outlet a cast iron 
pipe extends part way out to deep water. The purpose of this 
30-inch pipe is to serve for ordinary flows. During storms, when 
the sewer runs more than half full, it discharges through the 
upper portion of the cross section directly at the river wall. Thus 
this extension improves conditions somewhat, and undoubtedly has 
advantages over the method of extending an open channel as in 
the case of the Water Street sewer. Yet, for low water conditions, 
this extension does not reach to running water. Further instances 
of bad conditions along the banks of this River are shown by the 
following photographs : One represents the condition at the Os- 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 



229 



good Street Sewer Outlet, the other the south bank of the river 
near this same outlet. These are not exceptional localities, but 
typical of many places ; vegetation, earth and rocks are coated with 
sewage deposit. 




A Sewer Outlet at Osgood Street 




Vegetation, earth and rocks are coated with sewage deposit 



It is impossible to examine the sewage disposal system in a 
manufacturing city without being seriously impressed with the 
importance of providing some improved method of taking care 
of the extensive wastes from manufacturing plants. 

Here in Lawrence these wastes come from a variety of 



230 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



industries, and are augmented by the wastes from three leading- 
types, namely, from dyehouses, paper mills, and wool scouring 
plants. It is difficult to show without artificial colors the charac- 
teristics of these waste products. At times they are a pronounced 
dark purple color that affects the shade of the water even to the 
middle of the stream. This color was particularly noticeable at 
the time the wall photograph was taken of the Parker Street Outlet. 




View from Upper Railroad Bridge looking down stream, July, 191 1, during 
dry weather flow and showing exposed banks and bed of River 

Again even with equal pollution, the color is lighter in shade and 
less noticeable. Most of these liquid wastes mingle with the 
water so that the discoloration extends to considerable depth. 
One of the serious forms which remains a long while on the 
surface is that from wool scouring. The general view of the 
river shown by the photograph taken from the upper railroad 
bridge, and looking down the river, indicates plainly the white 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 



231 



streak of wool scouring waste that extends from the shore down 
the stream several hundred feet. 

Another photograph shows wool scouring waste from the 
new Wood Mill of the American Woolen Company. Even in this 
modern mill with its excellent equipment, it has not been found 
practicable to dispose of this wool grease in any better way than 
discharging it into the open river. 

The whole question of economical and reasonable disposal of 
waste from manufacturing plants is an engineering problem that 
has grown in importance tremendously in the last few years. 
Regulation or supervision of some sort is almost certain to come 
in the near future. The Massachusetts State Board of Health is 
studying the question, and especially in connection with the 
sanitary questions that concern the disposal of sewage for the 
cities of Lowell, Lawrence and Haverhill. Immediate restrictions 
are not likely to be enacted, but some improvement will doubtless 
be asked for. 




Wool scouring waste from the rear of the Wood Mill shown 
by the scum and white streak far out on the River 



232 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




Colored Dye Waste and Sewage flowing onto the River Bank 
near Parker Street 



OUTLETS FOR SEWAGE AND MANUFACTURING WASTES 



SOUTH SIDE MERRIMAC RIVER 


Size 


Area Drained 
Sq. Miles 


Culvert for Wood Mill, 


27 in. x 24 in. 




(Manufacturing waste) 






Sewer Pipe in rear of Wood Mill 


5 in. diam. 




Osgood Street 


54 " " 


0.27 


Waste Outlet rear E. Frank Lewis 






Scouring Mill 


44 " " 




Parker Street 


30 " " 


O.31 


Outlet below upper R. R. Bridge 


18 " " 


O.045 


South Broadway (Shanty Pond) 


70 " 
(extension 30 in.) 


0.29 


NORTH SIDE MERRIMAC RIVER 






Water Street 


2 of 30 in. 


O.64 


Upper Pacific 








Lower Pacific 


60 in. diam. 


O.29 


Washington Mills 


60 " ■« 


0.095 


Garden Street in Spicket River 


69 " " 


2.166 


Canal Street 


24 in. x 30 in. 


.085 


High Street 


12 in. diam. 


.006 


River Street 


32 in. x 40 in. 


.08 


Poor Farm 


10 in. diam. 


.22 



Approximate 

Resident 

Population 



3>645 



4,275 
572 

4,121 



10,663 

16,291 

3>466 

44,764 

500 

60 

870 

1,140 

Conditions above the clam where the water is held at more 
nearly a constant level, the river banks are not so objectionable. 
It will be seen that only a few sewers empty into the river above 
the dam. These are mostly of six and eight-inch sizes, and serve 
for street drains, carrying no house sewage. This part of the 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 233 

River is used less than formerly for boating, but on the south side 
there is still a building for a canoe club that serves as an important 
center. Should boating again come more in favor, this part of the 
river is likely to become far more popular. Below the dam, if 
the channel should be dredged to the sea the river would be much 
used for boating. It is possible, as the city grows, the banks 
could be used for esplanades or parkways or playgrounds for 
children. The need of improvement along these banks is almost 
certain to become more pressing each year, and, in the immediate 
future, the City must doubtless take action in the matter. 

The Spicket River. 

The Spicket River, which flows from the Arlington Mills at 
the Methuen line through North Lawrence and joins the Merri- 
mack just below the principal industries of the city, has been the 
cause of complaint and criticism during the past twenty years. 

After the completion of the intercepting sewer along its 
banks in 1886, for several years the river was not offensive, but 
remained clean and unobjectionable. But as the Arlington Mills 
prospered and enlarged, they entirely outgrew the drainage that 
had been provided for them, and, instead of dyehouse wastes 
flowing into the intercepting sewer as originally planned, these 
wastes were allowed to flow directly into the Spicket River. This 
added more pollution than the volume of water in the River could 
carry away, and conditions previous to 19 10 became almost unbear- 
able, especially during summer months. In 191 1, however, changes 
have been completed in the sewerage system so that the dyehouse 
wastes from the mill now all run into the main intercepting sewer, 
and none of the mill wastes reach the Spicket above the sewer 
outlet at Garden Street. 

As a result of this improvement hardly any odor has been 
noticeable during the past summer from this water. Below Garden 
Street, improvements, however, are still needed. 

I have made a personal examination of the conditions along 
the River by traversing its entire length within the city limits. 

The following photographs will give some idea of the con- 
ditions. Below the outlet at Garden Street, the River carries a 



234 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 




There are two Sewer Outlets and general waste along the Bank at 
Paper Mill near Marston Street 



the 




Overflow Sewer and Main 69-inch Sewer Discharge under the Garden Street 

Bridge. On opposite side of the River is the Outlet of the Sewer 

from the Lawrence General Hospital 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 



235 



large amount of pollution. The water has a foul odor under 
ordinary conditions. The banks are also foul and obnoxious. 
They are used as dumping grounds for rags, paper, bricks and 
piles of dirt, much of which is thrown out from paper mills along 
the river. 

Adjoining the International Paper Mill and opposite Marston 
Street there are two sewer outlets onto the banks of the river, and 
the photo on page 234 shows the way waste materials litter the 
banks in many other places. 

At the Garden Street outlet, at the time of my visit on Satur- 
day afternoon, September 30th, 191 1, a considerable part of the 
river was dry. The rocks and shores were slimy and 
slippery due to the foul condition of the water. Upstream from 
the sewer outlet, at the time of my inspection, October 12th, the 
water of the river was fairly free from sewage and without 
serious odor. The principal objections were along the banks of 
the Spicket. These were unprotected over most of the distance 
and were cluttered by all sorts of rubbish and filth. In many places, 
not only are the banks of the river used as waste grounds for 
back yards of tenements, but besides, the city is using one portion 




Refuse Dumping Grounds of City in rear of tenements at Brook Street 

as a dumping ground for ashes and rubbish. This is at Brook 
Street, and the photo, taken in the rear of several tenement houses, 
shows the cluttered condition of ashes, rags, papers, and tin cans. 



236 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

I counted thirty children trying to use these banks as a playground. 
Amid these cluttered surroundings, they necessarily expose them- 
selves to diseases that are transmissible through dirt. As in the 
case of the Merrimack, important objections to conditions along 
these banks concerns the question of breeding-places here afforded 
to flies. In many places there were decaying fruit and vegetables, 
and piles of manure, which would form suitable places for flies, 
and, in providing for the extinction of flies, sufficient improvement 
should be made to insure the health of children, and both of these 
improvements can be brought about without large expenditure. 

Although the public health is not directly affected by the 
clutter of bricks, wood, iron, old trees, tumbled-down shanties, 
tall weeds, and bushes, as found along this river, yet, it is believed 
that these conditions do, however, materially lessen the value of 
adjoining property, and, from the investment side alone, it should 
pay to clean up these banks and maintain them in conditions which 
would attract residents. The banks should be cleared, rubbish 
removed, weeds cut, and all combustibles burned, the earth graded 
off, and grass slopes maintained, so that mosquito breeding-places 
would be lessened and opportunity provided for children to play 
along the river banks without undue danger of catching disease. 

The view on next page shows the varying width of the river 
east from Newbury Street; and lastly is shown a section of the 
river east of Bennington Street. This illustrates the possibility of 
improvement. Here the channel has been straightened, the banks 
graded, and willow and birch trees are growing. It has been 
fenced in, and is not used for a dumping ground. 

I believe that similar improvements can well be made the 
entire length of the river, and it would then be known as an 
attractive stream, rather than a disagreeable open sewer, as it is 
now regarded. 

Garbage Disposal. 

Garbage commonly includes waste pieces of vegetables, fruit, 
meat and spoiled foods taken from kitchens of dwellings, 
restaurants, hotels or stores. 

Previous to the year 1904, various methods were tried for 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 



237 




Varying width of Channel east from Newbury Street 




The Banks have been straightened, Willow and Birch Trees allowed to grow 
and the area has been fenced in and no longer used for dumping 



238 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

disposing of garbage. The records of the Board of Health for 
1881 state that the garbage was sold for $4.67 per cord; in 1888, 
for $2.25; in 1897, it was given away and the receiver did the 
collecting. In 1900, the City was obliged to pay $1150 for having 
it carted away, and not including the collection of it from houses. 
But beginning in 1904, a less expensive plan for disposing of 
it was adopted. The present method is to collect the garbage in 
city teams, deliver it to the city stables, from there it is taken by 
a contractor who bargains for the year's supply. Collections are 
made from residences once a week, and the city is using for this 
purpose five teams with water-tight tanks. Two thousand dollars 
a year is paid to the city for the garbage as delivered at the city 
stables. The contractor feeds a small part of it to his own swine, 
and sells the rest to farmers in Methuen. Considerable garbage, 
however, from hotels, boarding-houses and restaurants is sold by 
the proprietors directly to individuals independently of the City. 
These collectors are required to have a license, and they must have 
receptacles or wagons that do not leak. The present method of 
disposing of the garbage for a revenue of $2000 a year appears 
to be all that could be expected at the present time. From a 
sanitary point of view, however, it will be readily understood by 
good housekeepers that once a week is not often enough for col- 
lections. Decay and putrification is apt to become a serious menace 
when a garbage pail with its kitchen swill is left standing for a 
week in hot days. In cities that are making crusades against the 
house fly, as in Brooklyn, N. Y., Brookline, Mass., and a great 
many of the Southern cities, garbage is removed, at least, twice 
a week. Garbage pails of metal with tight-fitting covers are used 
and chloride of lime or similar purifier is applied to any decaying 
materials that cannot be put in cans or covered with earth. 

Disposal of Store Wastes. 

The city has at present three teams, that collect waste 
paper from stores and shops, and deliver it to a shed at the 
city stables. Here enough assorting is done to separate dirt and 
valueless waste from the rest of the material. This portion is 
taken away by a contractor, who disposes of it, if he so desires, 




Bu Appropriations from Whjte Fund 



M<7 13 S^ho?l//f7<7 

1TION OF DUMPING GROUNDS 

Prepared for- 
Report on Invest /'a at/ on 

cf 

i%„ Public Health 

■Sept/S)// 




C- &. 



Geo. M fSnehcliffeJtet. 



GARBAGE DISPOSAL 239 

on dumps that are being used by the City. The same contractor 
also removes from here all paper, rags, strings, burlap, excelsior 
and store waste, just as it is collected. For the privilege of having 
these materials, he removes the valueless wastes to dumping 
grounds as mentioned above, and, for consideration of receiving 
the rest of the material, he pays the city $505 per year. The amount 
of valueless store waste is so large that serious attention must be 
given by the City to obtain available dumping grounds. 

Dumping Grounds for Refuse: 

The City has had no definite plan in disposing of ashes and 
rubbish; it has been used for filling various lots of land in different 
parts of the city. The general plan has been, as the city has grown, 
to each year find some space that would serve as a dumping ground 
for the time being. The sites that are being used at the present 
time are shown on Plate 6. 

B, D, and F are the most important places that are available 
for future dumping. B is located on Jackson Street just across 
the line in Methuen and serves for the eastern part of the City, but 
the space that it was first proposed to fill has been covered, and it 
is only by an extension beyond these limits that additional space 
is obtained temporarily. 

D serves for the westerly part of the city, and, although it 
has been a large area, it was estimated in July that its remaining 
capacity was 10,000 loads or one-fourth of a year for the whole 
city. If used for sections that now dump at B and C, but which 
must immediately use new localities, this space would serve • less 
than a year. The neighborhood near D is materially depreciated 
for residences by disagreeable odors emanating from materials 
dumped here, and on account of the prevalence of flies that breed 
in such places. 

The dumping grounds at F, located in North Andover 
near the Shawsheen River, are the ones that are counted upon for 
future dumping. The property belongs to a man who is allowing 
the ground to be filled in, and will probably permit a continuance. 
There are no houses in the immediate neighborhood, and dumping 
would not be as objectionable as at D, for instance. The distance 



2 4 o LAWRENCE SURVEY 

of this clumping ground from City Hall is two miles, and it is 
proposed to haul here by auto trucks. 

The space here available was estimated by the owner and 
my assistant, as seventeen acres, with a fill of twelve feet, and 
five acres, with an average fill of four feet. 

In 1908, there were removed 38,595 cartloads of ashes and 
refuse; in 1909, 38,104; in 1910, 38,471. Allowing 1.8 cubic 
yards per load, would mean that the grounds at F would serve 
the whole city approximately five years. 

Thus it is seen that another question of importance before 
the City is the provision for adequate disposal of refuse. Shall 
dumping grounds be maintained, and even a greater haul than two 
miles be planned for, or shall the City establish some form of 
incineration? The proper disposal of waste materials through 
sewers, from factories, and by ash barrels, and garbage pails, 
involves sanitary questions that should not longer be met by 
primitive methods. A city of the size of Lawrence cannot afford 
to pursue those methods of sewer and garbage disposal that are 
fast being displaced in other cities. I believe that the engineering- 
problems incident to the Merrimack River, the Spicket River, and 
the present garbage disposal methods must all, in the next few 
years, have thorough overhauling and distinct improvements. 

Better sanitary conditions of the milk supply, better garbage 
disposal, and more healthful conditions along the Merrimack and 
the Spicket Rivers are improvements that depend primarily upon 
accomplishments of the Board of Health. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 

General Duties of a Board of Health : 

The Board of Health should be especially charged with the 
care and promotion of public health; but in a broad sense almost 
every act of a human being is related, in one way or another, 
with " health; " and evidently some limit must be set to the duties 
that are assigned to the average Board of Health. 



The Duties of Boards of Health ; 

In general the duties include principally those questions that 
relate to sickness and health of the individual, singly and collect- 
ively, but in some cities, the Health Department includes, not only 
the multifarious duties incumbent upon ordinary Boards of Health, 
but, besides, regulations for the location of soap factories, tanneries, 
horse and cow stables; the blowing of steam whistles; the ringing 
of church bells ; and the smoke and soot from chimneys ; the size 
of yard spaces; widths of alleys and streets; the heating facilities 
in public halls, and dwelling houses ; the amount of window space 
and means of artificial lighting; the ventilation of public halls, 
work rooms, and sleeping-rooms; and, in some cities, the duties 
of the Street Department devolve upon the Board of Health. It 
has been believed that dust of the street may transmit tuberculosis, 
sore throat, pink eye, colds, scarlet fever, mumps, and diphtheria, 
and thus very properly come under the control of the Health 
Department, but scientists now place less weight on the dust theory. 
We are finding that these diseases are transmitted, either by direct 
contact, by flies, or through milk, water, raw vegetables, and so 
on, and that street dust has little direct relation to disease. 



242 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

The Lawrence Board of Health. 

In Lawrence, the Department has in previous years included: 
teams and men employed in the collection of garbage, ashes and 
waste papers from stores and dwelling houses; the removal of 
waste fish, rotten eggs, and decayed vegetables from wholesale 
houses; dead dogs and cats from streets and alleys, the emptying 
of private-privy vaults and cesspools; men employed as inspectors 
of plumbing in new buildings and in old buildings; of drains be- 
tween street sewers and buildings; men employed in tracing out 
infectious diseases; posting notices of these diseases at the 
dwellings; afterwards fumigating the premises; men at the 
general office of the Board making a record of diseases, issuing 
licenses or permits for cemeteries, slaughter houses, stables, for 
places to keep live fowl, for the privileges of street peddlers to 
sell vegetables and fish; others to carry on the business of under- 
takers, or plumbers, of drain-pipe layers, and so on; and issuing 
licenses for the privilege of making ice cream that is to be 
furnished to the public, and for selling milk; finally, a corps of 
school physicians who examine the eyesight, teeth, sense of hearing, 
and cases of infectious diseases as found among school children. 

Here are far too many and diversified duties for a Board of 
Health to administer properly and still have time and money left 
for its legitimate field. In American cities, our Boards of Health 
are not composed of specialists; we have plain, every-day citizens 
who take up the duties for a few years, then give way to new 
members. This is particularly true in Lawrence. We have had 
eighteen different members of the Board since the beginning of 
1900, — in twelve years, — and nine different chairmen. Of the 
eighteen members, seven had some previous experience as 
physicians; at one time one was a drug clerk; but, of the other ten, 
none are reported to have had any training that specially qualified 
them for passing upon matters of Public Health. 

List of members of the Board of Health since the beginning 
of 1900: 

1900 — Dr. F. W. Kennedy, chairman; Emil C. Stiegler, furniture 
dealer; Aime D. V. Bourget, clothing salesman. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 243 

1901 — Dr. F. W. Kennedy, chairman; Emil C. Stiegler, Aime 
D. V. Bourget. 

1902 — Aime D. V. Bourget, chairman ; Dr. F. W. Kennedy, 

Emil C. Stiegler. 

1903 — Aime D. V. Bourget, chairman ; Dr. F. W. Kennedy, 

William Burger, cigar manufacturer. 

1904 — William Burger, chairman; Dr. F. W. Kennedy, Aime 

D. V. Bourget. 

1905 — Dr. Frederick W. Kennedy, chairman; Dr. Carl H. Eidam, 

Aime D. V. Bourget. 

1906 — Dr. Carl H. Eidam, chairman; Dr. F. W. Kennedy, Aime 

D. V. Bourget. 

1907 — Aime D. V. Bourget, chairman; Dr. Carl H. Eidam, Dr. 

F. W. Kennedy. 

1908 — Dr. Carl H. Eidam, chairman; Aime D. V. Bourget, 

William H. Fennell, pharmacy business. 

1909 — Charles H. Bossier, provision business, chairman; Dr. 

Peter L. McKallagat, William H. Fennell (to March 2), 
Ralph A. Brackett, plumbing business (March 2 to end 
of year). 

1910 — C. H. Bossier, chairman; Dr. Peter L. McKallagat, Ralph 

A. Brackett (all removed April 11) ; no board from April 
1 1 to June 22 ; Dr. William J. Sullivan, chairman ; William 
A. Meagan, foreman paper mill ; and one vacancy, June 22 
to end of year. 

191 1 — William A. Meagan, chairman to October; Dr. J. H. 
Tobin to July; Charles P. Garneau, clerk, provision 
business, to October; Dr. Patrick J. Hughes, September 
to end of year; Henry Ragot, driver, October to end of 
year. 

1912 — Joseph Harris, jeweler, chairman; Charles H. Petit, 
clothier; Dr. George W. Dow, City Physician. 



244 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Associated with the Board of Health have been the following- 
Inspectors of Milk since 1900: 

1900- 1 905 — M. A. Scanlon, real estate and insurance business. 

1906 — Dr. Patrick J. Hughes, physician. 

1907 — Dr. Fred G. ■ Bushold, physician. 
1907-1908 — Eugene A. McCarthy, insurance business. 
1909-1911 — Dr. Thomas H. Collins, physician. 

191 1 to date — Dr. John H. Tobin, physician. 

The records of the Board of Health show that, in 19 10, there 
were forty meetings, occupying sixty-nine and one-half hours, an 
average of one and three-quarters hours each. One member (Dr. 
McKallagat) was absent ten full meetings and two parts of 
meetings out of nineteen. Otherwise, there were no absences of 
any members during the year. In 191 1, there were forty meetings, 
occupying about sixty-one hours, or an average of one and one-half 
hours each. There have been but four absences and no member 
absent more than twice. The time thus devoted to meetings should 
have been ample to produce definite and valuable results. 

An examination of the records show that foremost in the 
deliberation of the Board has been the subject of licenses for 
stables. Whether Polando Abrahams shall be allowed to keep two 
horses or three? That's a question to incite even a dormant Board 
of Health. In 1910, of thirty-six hours used in meetings, over half 
of the time was given to questions of stables, and, in 191 1, nearly 
one-half of the time was similarly used. It would appear that 
the Boards had gone daffy over the question of the number of 
horses, hens or goats that citizens should keep. Contrast the above 
with the time and effort given to essential Board of Health matters; 

During 1910 and 191 1, the subject of milk has received atten- 
tion at five meetings each year, and ten hours in the two years; 
three-fourths of that time was consumed in discussing the question 
of inefficiency of Dr. Collins as milk inspector. At one meeting, 
it was argued, at another argued and postponed because of insuffi- 
cient notice, at another, because of death in his family, finally a 
hearing given, then his removal effected, and another inspector 



BOARD OF HEALTH 245 

elected. An efficient Board would have required not over two 
meetings to have acted upon that whole matter. 

Any Board must be willing to stand upon its record; and its 
record must be held open to the public. I have examined with an 
open mind the records of each meeting for the past two years. I 
have talked with city officials and many citizens, and I must admit 
that I can find little to commend, but much to criticise. The time 
and energy of the various Boards have evidently been given to 
matters of small importance. There has not been a broad view, 
a survey of essentials that control public health. The view point 
has been in the small, individual, restricted way. For years, 
Lawrence has not had what we should at the present time consider 
an efficiently organized and conducted Board of Health, and that 
leads us to an important question for brief consideration : What 
should a Board of Health accomplish? 

To accomplish the most, it is acknowledged that politics and 
Board-of-Health measures should be distinctly and positively separ- 
ated. Past members of the Board — some of them excellent men 
— assert that politics has often been a hindrance to the proper 
work of the Board; that the best possible plans would be thwarted 
by some one " higher up." After a careful study of the situation 
during 191 1, for the purpose of eliminating politics and improving 
general conditions, I suggested to the new government the estab- 
lishment of a department of Sanitation and the transference to 
another department of the Inspection of Plumbing. This re-organ- 
ization is indicated by the next page, which shows the duties of the 
City departments divided in accordance with the new charter 
beginning 19 12. 



246 



LAWRENCE SURVEY 



Lawrence City Departments 



mayor 



Finance and 
Public Affairs 



Engineering 



Public Safety 



Public Property 



Public Health 
and Charities 



Treasurer 

Auditing 

Purchasing 

Assessing 

Sinking funds 

Tax collection 

Claims 

Registration of voters 

City clerk 

Legal 

Highways and other ways 

Street watering 

Sewers and drains (including licenses to drain-pipe layers) 

Water and water works 

Bridges 

Engineering 

Police 

Fire 

Lighting 

Wiring 

Weights and measures 

Conduits 

Buildings 

Parks 

Public grounds 

Inspection of buildings 

Inspection of plumbing 1 

Sanitation 2 

Removal of ashes and waste material 

Removal of garbage, dead animals and decayed veg- 
tables 

Cleaning of privy vaults, cesspools 
Poor 
Board of Health 

City Physician 

Public Hospitals 

Diseases 

Foods ; meats, provisions 

Licenses ; stables, peddling fish and vegetables 

Milk ; inspection and regulations 

Reports on cases of infectious diseases, of births and 
deaths 



1. In?j ection of plumbing has heretofore been under the Board of Health. 

2. Suggestion for the establishment of this department has been adopted. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 247 

An Efficient Board of Health : 

The specific duties of a Board of Health, organized with a 
view of concentrating its work solely on essential elements of 
Public Health, should be: 

To determine the extent of disease. 

The distribution of disease over the City, and among nation- 
alities. 

To examine into the diseases of children and infantile mor- 
tality. 

The origins and causes of smallpox, tuberculosis, typhoid 
fever, scarlet fever, infantile paralysis, and other communicable 
diseases. 

To determine the means by which each epidemic of any of 
the above diseases is transmitted — by flies, pet animals, through 
the medium of water, milk, raw vegetables, raw oysters, and so on. 

To advance methods to prevent the recurrence of epidemics of 
communicable, or " catching," diseases. 

To prevent the adulteration of foods and drinks. 

To bring to the notice of the prosecuting authorities all failures 
to comply with measures that have been lawfully prescribed for the 
promotion of public health. 

To regulate the milk supply, approve of sources of production, 
the methods of handling, of distributing to consumers, prescribe 
standards of quality, make laboratory tests, issue licenses for the 
sale of milk. 

To regulate similarly the ice-cream supply. 

To prescribe and enforce sanitary requirements for creameries, 
bakeries, stores and markets. 

To secure reports of infectious diseases, of births, and deaths. 

What sort of men are needed to carry forward effectively a 
city Department of Health : 

Not merely the family doctor, a detective of disease, a quar- 
antine officer; medical training alone does not fit men for this 
service. The work is not primarily curing disease, it is that of 
prevention. Men are needed who know; (a) mathematics, — to 
anaylze statistics relating to the sick and the dead, thus to show 
what forces of disease are prevailing, and where the attack is next 



248 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

likely to be made; (b) engineering, — to provide against impure 
air and infected water, to dispose properly of garbage and sewage, 
and to maintain clean streets and alleys; (c) chemistry, — to pro- 
tect the public against the sale of adulterated and poisonous foods 
or beverages; (d) bacteriology, — to discover the germs of disease, 
provide antitoxins, and detect impurities in milk and other food; 
(e) law, — to interpret common law, to prescribe rules and regula- 
tions that can be lawfully enforced. And withal the duties of the 
health officer, there should be education, that the people may learn 
the arts of hygiene, and the principles of right living. 

" Perfect health," says the Report of the Survey of 1850, 
" gives to its possessor strength, energy, power, buoyancy of spirit, 

happiness It is under the control of public authority and 

public administration that life and health may be saved or lost, 
and they are actually saved or lost, as this authority is wisely or 
unwisely exercised." 

Lawrence has been a leader in methods of water filtration; 
why should it not become a leader with an effective Board of 
Health — to prevent disease, advance the principles of hygiene, and 
direct the people in ways of better health? 

Infectious Diseases by Wards. 

A study of the prevalence of infectious diseases has been made 
for the purpose of determining whether these diseases are more 
common in densely-populated wards or in thinly-settled and 
residential wards. The three diseases selected were typhoid fever, 
scarlet fever, and diphtheria. The records of the Board of Health, 
although brief and unsystematic, were fairly definite and complete 
regarding these three diseases. An attempt was made to include 
also tuberculosis, but the records of that disease, even for 1910, 
show 122 deaths against 121 cases reported, and I was told by a 
district nurse of one of the life insurance companies that, in her 
experience, tuberculosis in insufficiently reported, and the dangers 
of the disease are constantly ignored. Diphtheria and typhoid run 
more virulently and are reported more thoroughly. Scarlet fever 
is commonly recognized as a communicable, or " catching " dis- 
ease, and is reported better than measles or whooping cough. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 249 

In order to determine the distribution of these diseases — 
typhoid, scarlet fever and diphtheria — a chart of large size was 
first plotted, showing the cases for 19 10. Wherever the plotting 
showed a cluster of diseases, the question of relation of such to 
density of population was investigated. Eight sections were 
selected over various part of the city, the number of cases counted, 
— ranging from six to thirty-four, — and compared with the popu- 
lation, giving the number of cases from 2.1 to 33.1 per 1,000 
population. To my surprise, for all of the sections thus examined, 
the percentages ran higher for the thinly settled areas than for the 
densely populated. Although this unexpected result was not 
decisive, still it seemed to call for further investigation. I, 
therefore, plotted a map — see Plate 10 — to show the Density 
of Population for the whole City. This map was made from data 
obtained from insurance maps and from the Housing Survey of 
Mr. Todd. It was found that nearly half of the total population 
of the city live within half a mile of the Common. Ward 1 con- 
tains one crowded section, but the greater part of the ward is 
residential; Wards 2, 3, and 4 are crowded and are considered 
congested; Ward 5 comprises a large area and is less crowded; 
while Ward 6 has been recently built up and contains practically 
no congested areas. To show the rates of cases of the above 
diseases in these Wards, I next plotted Plates 7 and 8. These 
diagrams cover the years from 1905 to 19 10. The average number 
of cases per 1,000 population is shown by the heavy line; above the 
heavy line means a higher rate; an unfavorable condition, repre- 
sented by the dark area; below the heavy line, a favorable condi- 
tion, represented by the light area. The anomalous answer is here 
noticeable again; namely, Wards 3 and 4, crowded wards, have 
the smallest number of cases ; Wards 2 and 5 have average amounts ; 
and Wards 1 and 6, residential wards, have had excessive amounts, 
especially Ward 1, which has exceeded the average each year. 

To verify these results still further, I had the records of the 
Board of Health re-examined, a careful curve plotted to show the 
probable population of years between census takings, and again the 
evidence was plain that the residential Wards 1 and 6 show greater 
rate of these diseases than the crowded Wards 3 and 4; and to 



/9oe 




/sos 



/906 /907 /90Q /90S 

Dark shaded areas indicate an increase in the rate of cases as 
reported, above the average of a// Wards- fin unfavorable condition 



/SIO 




IS 

!• 
h 

$ 

I- 

if 



^3 



\« 



The Lawrence Survey 
Bu Appropriations from the White Fund 

♦ 

D/aarams showing Rate, bu Wards 



Ward Five 


INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

TujohoidFe.\/e.r y Diphtheria, ^Scarlet Fei/er 






Prepared from Citu Records for 
Report on Ini/esfiaation of Public Health 








ySept. 1911 












r*^ 




WS^Z' 


sported in Ward S 




^-rlreraye of 


all Wards. 




V 











3 a 




/SOS /BOS VB07 /BOB /BOB 

Light shaded areas indicate a decrease in the rate of 
cases below the ai/eraae at all Wards.- 4 favorable condition* 



/BIO 



252 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

ascertain if these diseases are reported as well in one ward as 
another, I consulted the agent of the Board of Health, who has 
had many years of experience in investigating diseases, and he 
believed that the various wards report equally well ; a district nurse 
corroborated that view, and also some of the physicians of the city. 
It is not claimed that the foregoing analysis offers conclusive 
proof that infectious diseases are more prevalent in outlying 
districts than in crowded; it does seem, however, to indicate 
positively that in Lawrence for the past six years, the thinly 
settled wards have had more cases of these diseases — scarlet fever, 
typhoid, and diphtheria — per 1,000 population, than the crowded 

wards. 

This result is contrary to generally accepted rules ; it disturbs 
some of our popular theories, and it calls for explanation. The 
answer seems to be that these three diseases enter the human body, 
not through dust and vitiated air of tenements, but probably 
through the medium of water and milk. And water and milk 
would be just as plentiful and just as much infected with disease 
in outlying as in crowded districts. If the transmission of these 
diseases can thus be traced to water and milk, — which is the 
conclusion of modern science, — can we not find by similar 
investigations the medium for tuberculosis, for pneumonia, and for 
infantile paralysis? Are these diseases more frequent in crowded 
tenements or in outlying sections? These are questions that 
deserve prompt attention of our Boards of Health. What answers 
shall we have from the Lawrence Board? What will it do in the 
immediate future to discover the causes of diseases, to check their 
transmission, and to establish Lawrence as a leader in the pro- 
motion of public health? 

Recommendations for the Board of Health: 

The following recommendations are submitted for the atten- 
tion of the Board of Health, and for such effective endorsement as 
may be found practicable: 

Keep the work of the Department limited and free of politics. 

Concentrate half of time and expenditure, for the next few 
years, on the Milk question. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 253 

Make sanitary inspections of milk bottling and ice cream 
plants. 

Have farms inspected by own inspectors, by the State's, or 
by other means that may become practicable. 

Classify milk as certified, inspected milk heated, and market 
milk heated. 

Require all milk that is not certified to be scientifically heated, 
or pasteurized, beginning 19 14. 

Advocate a central milk plant for heating, or pasteurizing of 
milk, bottling it, and from which it may be delivered to consumers. 

Ascertain the principal breeding-places of flies, at garbage 
dumping grounds, sewage banks of the Merrimack and Spicket 
Rivers, vacant lots, back yards of dwellings. 

Find where, in the city, each disease prevails most; which 
parts of the city have least sickness, and which most. 

It is believed that the Board of Health can profitably in- 
vestigate the above questions, that it is possible to produce results 
along many of these lines that would be of benefit to the city, 
but for material success, two important conditions will be necessary : 

1. An efficiently organized Health Department. 

2. Support from the general public. 

Regarding (1) the organization of the Department, it is fair 
to say that the beginning of 19 12 under the new charter indicates 
an improvement; there seems to be a broader policy, more activity 
and business-like methods. The results of public officials can best 
be judged near the end of their term of office. Pressure upon 
pressure is brought to bear that will swerve many an office holder 
from the straight and true course that he had planned in the be- 
ginning. Sharp and insistent criticism is needed when city officials 
let go their grip, put aside their promises, and allow their depart- 
ment to collapse, but also commendation should be given freely and 
liberally when officials are honest, straightforward, and stand up 
boldly against intrigue. 

Before the present Board of Health was appointed to office, 
the writer suggested that it would be well to have members who 
possessed the following qualifications, and, whenever it is found 



254 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

to be practicable, these qualifications can well receive favorable 
consideration : 

Have one member who is competent and willing to devote 
himself principally to questions that concern Vital Sta- 
tistics and records of the office. 

One member who is familiar with the Milk Question, 
and will consider broadly and effectively both the 
farmers' side and the consumers'. 

One member who will investigate diseases, sanitation of 
buildings, healthfulness of various modes of life. 

Each year a member should be chosen for a term of three 
years. Also there should be in the employ of the Department a 
few men as field inspectors or laboratory assistants who have been 
trained as sanitarians. As explained in a preceding paragraph, the 
men needed to carry forward effectively a City Department of 
Health should in these days have special training. Two employees 
thus trained could, at the present time, be profitably employed in 
the field, and laboratory. 

(2) Support from the general public is necessary in the case 
of the Health Department. Poor streets mean inconvenience, 
financial loss to the city, but poor health means stupor, loss of life. 
The public in Lawrence have not, heretofore, watched with 
sufficient care the acts of the Boards of Health, nor the relation of 
the Department to the rest of the city. 

I submit in Plate 9 a graphical representation of the ex- 
penditures of the City for 19 10. Note the black area which shows 
the relatively small amount that was expended strictly for public 
health. For that year, streets and paving together received 
$360,377.16; less than one-fourth of that amount, or $81,054.75, 
was spent by the Health Department, and, finally, excluding the 
cost of disposing of ashes and garbage, the expenditures for 
essential health measures is estimated as $20,000, or one-eighteenth 
of the amount for streets and paving. 

In 191 1, the appropriations for the Department were $65,000, 
but the expenditures were $106,478.30, of which about $25,000 
was for essential public health measures. The Department of 



PLATE 3. 
SSO 000 /OOOOO /SOOOO 200 000 250 OOO -300 OOO $350 000 




r^OU/nqr 

Lr 



/9/0 
Expenditures of City Departments 

Prom Spec/a/ /Auditors Report 
The black area shows the re/ative/u small amount that is 
expended for essential Public Hea/th measures 



256 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

Health does not need large appropriations; $50,000, or one-half 
of the amount that is provided for Police, for Fire, or for Water, 
carefully expended, would place the Department to the front in 
service for the city, but the public has a right to expect the money 
to be properly expended for the general up-building of health con- 
ditions throughout the whole city; rich and poor should be 
benefitted, native-born and foreigners must be protected ; " public " 
means the whole people; the service of the Department must be 
for all, and the success or failure of the Board must be judged 
by all. It is Public Health that concerns us and to emphasize this 
inter-dependent relation between the public and health is an im- 
portant purpose of this Survey. The new health department has 
excellent opportunities, and the people can justly expect results 
that will be noteworthy and generally beneficial. 

Population and Its Relation to Public Health : 

A Safe Milk Supply, and an efficient Board of Health, 
would seem to be reasonable demands that could be secured in any 
city. But of Lawrence we hear the excuse : It is a manufacturing 
city, containing many foreigners, who cannot speak English, who 
know little of our laws and customs, who do not care to become 
Americanized, and who frequently are indifferent to the rules of 
good health and the prevention of disease. Therefore a study of 
population and the relation of foreigners to public health becomes 
of moment to Boards of Health. 

In fifty years Lawrence has grown from a city of 17,639 
population to one of 85,892, and the increase has been surprisingly 
uniform in different parts of the city. 

POPULATION BY WARDS SHOWING GROWTH OF CITY SINCE 1880 



Wards 
1880 


1 
6818 


2 
6086 


3 
8184 


4 

7214 


5 

6579 


6 

4270 


lotai 
Population 

39151 


1890 


\02 v /o 
6952 


104% 
6338 


102% 
8368 


127% 
9M7 


120% 
7888 


139% 
596i 


114% 
44654 


1900 


141% 
9804 


135% 
8537 


120% 
10159 


128% 
1 1722 


150% 
11821 


177% 
10516 


140% 
62599 


1910 


144% 
I4186 


158% 
i357i 


140% 
14236 


116% 


136% 
16180 


134% 
14138 


137% 
85892 


Average 


I42# 


1 42% 


130% 


122% 


141% 


iS5% 


139% 



Ward 2 







Ward I 
Pop. i4iee 



The Lawrence Su&i/ey 
By /Appropriations from the 
Wh/te Fund 




Map show/ng 
DENSJTr OF POPULATION 

Pre/barec/ for 
Report on /m/estigation 
01* 

RUBL.K1 HE&L.TH 

Dec. 1911. 
Sca/e /inch— 2+00 reef. 



( 9/OUS.&M9us 3S 892 

*f 3/<J acres. 

■ of forri/nock ffiv*r 

total jnpu/aticn //l/e fit Jt/rt 
Common., 



g*c \m h/hcAc/;//*. p*r. 



BOARD OF HEALTH 257 

For the past twenty years the average increase in all wards 
has been 38 per cent each decade. Wards 3 and 4 have fallen 
slightly below and Ward 6 has risen above the average. 

The growth of population is shown by Plate 10. 

If the curve of increase continues in accordance with prob- 
ability based on the growth during the past forty years, the 
population should become 115,000 in 1920. Plate 10 also shows 
the congested areas of population. Nearly half of the total popula- 
tion live within half a mile of the Common. 

The ratio between native-born and foreign-born population 
from 1870 to 19 10 is shown by the following table: 





Native 


Foreign- born 


Total 


Increase in 10 




Population 


Population 


Population 


Year Periods 


1870 


16,204 


12,717 


28,921 


64 per cent 


1880 


21,885 


17,266 


39,151 


3^-4 " 


1890 


24,I3 6 


20,518 


44,654 


14.1 " 


1900 


33,982 


28,577 


62,559 


40.1 " 


1910 


44,573 


4i>3 1 9 


86,892 


37-3 " 



Average, 38.2 " 

In 1870 there were 3500 more native-born population than 
foreign-born, and at each census taking down to 19 10 there have 
been between 3500 and 5500 more native population than foreign- 
born. 

The foreign-born population is distributed according to 
country of birth as follows : 

Canada 
English French 
1890 4459 

1900 1683 6999 

191 o 1792 7696 

During the past twenty years the population that was born 
in England has remained nearly stationary — about 5000 ; that 
born in Germany has remained close to 2000; Scotland about 1200; 
and the population born in Ireland has decreased from 7700 to 
6000 ; while the number that were born in Canada has doubled and 
those born in Russia have increased from a mere handful to over 
4000, and those born in Italy to over 6000. Russian and Italian- 
born now constitute one-fourth of the foreign population. 



England 


Germany 


Ireland 


Italy Poland Russia 


Scotlanc 


4985 
5131 

5659 


1830 
2465 
230I 


7697 
7058 
5943 


46 60 
936 411 780 

6693 4352 


IO79 
1 198 
1336 





Total 


Persons of 




Population 


Foreign Parentage 


1890 


44,654 


35,670 or 80 per cent 


1900 


62,559 


51,999 " 83 " 


1910 


85,892 


73,872 " 86 " 



258 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

And besides the foreign-born a considerable portion of the 
population born in this country have foreign parents. 

Having Foreign Fathers 
and Foreign Mothers 

33,05* 
47,279 
66,791 

The percentage of the population that are foreigners has 
increased in thirty years from 80 per cent to 86 per cent, so that 
now in the whole city of nearly 86,000 population, seven-eighth 
are foreign-born or have foreign parents. 

Whether native or foreign-born, American citizens look to 
the city of their residence for advancement, for protection, for 
education. To what extent Lawrence is fulfilling its responsibility 
of government, assimilating foreigners from many countries, and 
transforming them into good citizenship, could well constitute an 
extended investigation beyond the scope of the present Survey. 

Many of the civic agencies — the schools, the parks, the 
police stations, the waterworks plants — are shown on Plate II. 
These are some of the agencies that benefit the City; the extent 
and variety of them is noteworthy, but this Survey indicates that 
the rapid growth of the City, its very prosperity in fact, beset it 
with cogent problems of Housing, Public Health, Education and 
Citizenship that must receive corresponding advancement. 
Agencies for betterment must keep abreast of the growth of the 
City, and the promotion of needed improvements. 

It is not the work of the city officials alone, but churches of 
all denominations, clubs and associations with members native and 
foreign-born, all citizens are urged to consider the report herewith 
presented and by vote or public statement to endorse such recom- 
mendations as especially appeal to them. 



PLATE II. 




SUMMARY OF THE REPORT ON PUBLIC HEALTH 
The Milk Supply: 

The City has been giving practically no attention to the milk 

supply. Page 148. 
Few citizens know where the milk that they drink comes from. 

Page 148. 
One-fourth of it comes from Maine and Vermont towns 150 to 

200 miles away. Page 152. 
Milk is taken from the farms to the various railroad stations, then 

transported by cars. Page 180. 
Forty-five farms make up this supply from Derry. Page 176. 
Each can is sampled by an inspector who takes out a spoonful and 

tastes of it. Page 177. 
Boxford, Methuen and North Andover lead in standards. Page 159. 
In all over 600 different farms doubtless send milk to the City. 

Page 160. 
About how many children and adults per year must we allow to 

contract sickness or death by disease in milk? Page 191. 
If babies that die each year by disease and impurities in milk were 

scalded to death there would be a popular uprising against 

such barbarity. Page 188. 
In any dairy, of first importance is method. Page 156. 
An old farm scrupulously clean is better than a modern dairy care- 
lessly maintained. Page 167. 
The object of this investigation is to secure an improved quality 

of milk. It is a movement for Clean Milk and a Fair Price 

to the Farmer. Page 158. 
The Farmer that can " raise " all No. 1 milk should get the highest 

price for it. Page 188. 
A list of twenty-eight dairies that were found to be supplying milk 

that is produced under especially good conditions. Page 174. 
A dairy that has excellent equipment and maintains excellent 

methods should have associated with it a bottling plant of 

equal standards. Page 180. 



26o LAWRENCE SURVEY 

It is not fair to ask a farmer to maintain excellent conditions and 
then have the quality of the milk that he furnishes vitiated 
by careless handling in the bottling plant. Page 183. 

Unfortunately many of the existing bottling plants are inferior in 
standards to the farms from which they receive milk. Page 183. 

I earnestly recommend that more attention be given to the sanitary 
conditions of milk bottling plants. Page 202. 

Plate 3 shows a proposed plan for a Modern Milk House. Page 203. 

Ice Cream manufacturing is done in rooms connected with tenement 
houses. Page 187. 

Children from the house or from the street pass in and out of 
these manufacturing rooms without restrictions. Page 187. 

Not only should laboratory tests of milk be made but as with dairy 
inspections I believe that the public should know the results 
of these tests. Page 204. 

As filters are unquestionably needed for the Lawrence water supply, 
so I believe is pasteurization for the milk supply. Page 192. 

Pasteurizing has become an approved method of treating milk be- 
cause it destroys disease germs that the milk may contain, yet 
it does not impair the quality of the milk. Page 192. 

A new process has been developed by which milk is pasteurized in 
sealed bottles. Page 194. 

Pasteurizing by the consumer, in his own house, is possible, but 
difficult to accomplish satisfactorily. Page 194. 

Could the producers own and operate a central plant? Page 206. 

The Association in Erie, (Penn.) I am informed by the President, 
was started twelve years ago. Page 206. 

It should afford the farmer a direct share in the whole profit from 
dairy to household. Page 208. 

The Water Supply : 

The problem of transforming this impure and dangerous water 
supply into a potable and safe drinking water was in reality 
solved in 1893 when Slow Sand Filters were first installed. 
Page 217. 



SUMMARY 261 

The reduction in death rate in Lawrence compares favorably with 

results that have occurred in other cities. Page 219. 
I believe that it does not overstate the facts to say that, with the 

present population, filtration is saving from 350 to 400 lives 

every year. Page 219. 
The total cost of installing all of the filters and their accessories 

is given as $140,000; this outlay has been more than justified 

by the reduction of typhoid in a single year. Page 221. 
That measures for prevention will effect infinitely more than 

remedies for the cure of disease. Page 224. 
The water supply of Lawrence I believe to be as favorable to 

public health as could reasonably be demanded. Page 224. 

The Sewage and Garbage Disposal Methods : 

Thus into the Merrimack River from nine principal outlets this 
sewage is discharged. Page 225. 

There seems to be no limitations in the use of this river for sewage 
purposes. From bank to bank, 1000 feet in width, it is 
veritably an open depository for sewage and manufacturing 
waste. Page 226. 

In many localities the sewage was observed in a decomposing 
state on the surface of the ground where it had been deposited 
by some outlet that did not properly extend to running water. 
Page 226. 

It is impossible to examine the sewage disposal system in a manu- 
facturing city without being seriously impressed with the 
importance of providing some improved method of taking care 
of the extensive wastes from manufacturing plants. Page 229. 

Regulation or supervision of some sort is almost certain to come 
in the near future. Page 231. 

It is possible, as the city grows, that the banks could be used for 
esplanades, or parkways, or playgrounds for children. 
Page 233. 

From the investment side alone, it should pay to clean up these 
banks and maintain them in conditions which would attract 
residents. Page 236. 



262 LAWRENCE SURVEY 

In cities that are making crusades against the house-fly, garbage 

is removed at least twice a week. Page 238. 
The City has no definite plan in disposing of ashes and rubbish. 

Page 239. 
Shall dumping grounds be maintained and even a greater haul 

than two miles be planned for, or shall the City establish some 

form of incineration? Page 240. 

The Board of Health : 

Evidently some limit must be set to the duties that are assigned to 
the average Board of Health. Page 241. 

Here are far too many and diversified duties for a Board of Health 
to administer properly and still have time and money left for 
its legitimate held. Page 242. 

We have had eighteen different members of the Board since the 
beginning of 1900. Page 242. 

An examination of the records show that foremost in the delibera- 
tions of the Board has been the subject of licenses for stables. 
Page 244. 

During 1910 and 191 1 the subject of milk has received attention 
at live meetings each year, and ten hours in the two years. 
Page 244. 

For years Lawrence has not had what we should at the present 
time consider an efficiently organized and conducted Board 
of Health. Page 244. 

What sort of men are needed to carry forward effectively a City 
Department of Health? Page 247. 

Lawrence has been a leader in methods of water filtration, why 
should it not become a leader with an effective Board of 
Health? Page 248. 

The thinly-settled wards have had more cases of these diseases — 
scarlet-fever, typhoid, and diphtheria — per thousand popula- 
tion than the crowded wards. Page 2^2. 

The answer seems to be that these three diseases enter the human 
body, not through dust and vitiated air of tenements, but 
probably through the medium of water and milk. Page 2^2. 



SUMMARY 263 

Could we not find by similar investigation the medium for tuber- 
culosis, for pneumonia, and for infantile paralysis? Page 252. 

For material success two important conditions will be necessary: 
An efficiently organized Health Department and support from 
the general public. Page 253. 

The expenditures for essential health measures is estimated as 
$20,000, or one-eighteenth of the amount for streets and 
paving. Page 254. 

The new health department has excellent opportunities, and the 
people can justly expect results that will be noteworthy and 
generally beneficial. Page 256. 

The Population and Its Relation to Public Health : 

But of Lawrence, we hear the excuse : It is a manufacturing city. 
Page 256. 

In fifty years Lawrence has grown from a city of 17,639 popula- 
tion to one of 85,892. Page 256. 

At each census-taking down to 19 10 there have been between 3500 
and 5500 more native population than foreign-born. Page 257. 

Russian and Italian-born now constitute one-fourth of the foreign- 
born population. Page 257. 

And besides the foreign-born a considerable portion of the popula- 
tion born in this country have foreign parents. Page 258. 

Thus in the whole city of nearly 86,000 population seven-eighths 
are foreign-born or have foreign parents. Page 258. 

The rapid growth of the City, its very prosperity in fact, beset it 
with cogent problems of Housing, Public Health, Education 
and Citizenship. Page 258. 

All citizens are urged to consider the report herewith presented and 
by vote or public statement to endorse such recommendations 
as appeal to them. Page 258. 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



000Z55512D5 







